tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13307394291020736762024-03-13T17:10:42.827+03:00Mehdi ZOUAOUIThis is a simple blog where I write articles, book reviews, and opinion articles.
Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.comBlogger19125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-13865605748171747912022-08-12T16:29:00.000+03:002022-08-12T16:29:28.942+03:00موسيقي الأرابيسك في تركيا بين الهوية الفنية والاحتجاج الثقافي<p> <span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; text-align: right; white-space: pre-wrap;">غالبا ما تكون البلدان التي تقع بين حواف حضارات مختلفة بلدانا بفسيفساء ثقافية وهوياتية هجيينة ومختلفة وهذا ما من شأنه أن يقودها إلى أن تمر بالكثيرالتحورات والانسلاخات سواءا كانت إيجابية. وخير مثال على هذا هو تركيا وهي ذلك البلد لا يزال يبحث عن تحديد مكانته في الخارطة الثقافية العالمية، ولا يزال يسعى لتحديد فيما إذا كان بلدا شرقيا خياليا أو بلدا أوربيا كما اصطلح على ذلك الكواكبي. وسنتناول في هذه المقالة ظاهرة بزغت في تركيا كنتاج لهذا وهو فن موسيقي هجين يدعى بموسيقى الأرابيسك. وسنتطرق في هذا المنشور باختصار إلى هذا الفن حتى يتسنى للقارئ مقارنته بالفنون الشعبية الأخرى التي ما فتئت تظهر ويأفل نجمها في البلدان العديدة.</span></p><span id="docs-internal-guid-f7bea190-7fff-e53a-bf84-2f5e2103690b"><br /><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">مع توجه مصطفى كمال أتاتورك، مؤسس الدولة التركية الحديثة، نحو الحداثة الغربية قام بتضييق الخناق على الموسيقى التركية القديمة وفتح المجال لأدبيات الموسيقى الغربية. وكيف لا وهو الذي قد قال في إحدى خطاباته أن:" مقياس التغيير في أي أمة يكمن في قدرتها على احتواء واستيعاب التغيير الموسيقي"</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. وبناءا على هذا ومع حلول 1934 تم إيقاف بث الموسيقى التركية بألوانها في الإذاعات واستمر هذا الحظر لعامين متتالين وكانت الإذاعة خلال تلك الحقبة قناة أساسية يستمع الناس من خلالها للموسيقى وكانت الموسيقى الغربية هي الوحيدة التي كانت تعزف من خلال هذه القناة.</span></p><br /><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ومن أجل تعزيز هذا التغيير تم تأسيس لجنة إصلاح الموسيقى في تلك الفترة حيث اقترح أحد أعضاء اللجنة أن الحل الجذري لهذه المسألة هو المنع الكلي للموسيقى أحادية النغمة في عموم تركيا. ولكن هذا الاقتراح قوبل بالاعتراض حيث علق أحد الأعضاء قائلا أنه لا يمكننا أن نجبر راعيا في الجبل أن يبحث عن راع ثاني حتى لا يكون الغناء أحادي النغمة. وازدادت غرابة هذا الاقتراح عندما سأل مصطفى كمال أتاتورك عن وضع هذه المبادرة الإصلاحية الموسيقية وتم التوصل إلى واقع أنه يجب مأسسة هذا الجهد من أجل الوصول إلى نتائج عملية.</span></p><br /><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ويجب التنويه إلى أنه من بين الكتب التي ساهمت في تعزيز موقف لفظ كل ما هو أجنبي شرقي وتبني ماهو غربي، هو الكتاب الذي ألفه </span><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B6%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%83%D9%88%D9%83_%D8%A3%D9%84%D8%A8" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ضياء جوك ألب</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> والموسوم بـ "</span><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCrk%C3%A7%C3%BCl%C3%BC%C4%9F%C3%BCn_Esaslar%C4%B1" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">أساسيات القومية التركية</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">" وكان هذا الكتاب بمثابة دستور مهم ممهدا للثورة الثقافية التركية. وكان يرى ضياء أنه يجب طرح كل الثقافات الأجنبية واستبدالها بالثقافة التركية الحديثة، وقد نجحت هذه الفكرة إلى حد بعيد إذا نظرنا إليها من وجهة نظر ثقافة الإقصاء وذلك بالمحاولة بالتخلص من الموسيقى البيزنطية، والفارسية والعربية لأنها ليست بالضرورة موسيقى تركية أصيلة.ومما يمكن ملاحظته أن كلا من أتاتورك وضياء جوك ألب و رغم أنهما لم يكونا متأثرين كثيرا بأدبيات الموسيقى العثمانية، فإنهما أرادا أن يؤسسسا مزيجا من الموسيقى التركية، حيث تمتزج فيها الموسيقى التركية القديمة والشعبية وتختمر بنظريات وأدبيات الموسيقى الغربية.</span></p><br /><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">وباعتماد هذا الفكر الجديد تم إنتاج نوع جديد وهجين من الموسيقى التركية المتأثر بالموسيقى الغربية في محاولة لمحاكاة ممارسات الموسيقى الغربية فضلا عن السمفونيات وحفلات البالي وغيرها من الأنواع الموسيقية. وقد اشتهر خلال هذه المرحلة </span><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCrk_Be%C5%9Fleri" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الملحنون الأتراك الخمسة</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> وعلى رأسهم </span><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmet_Adnan_Saygun" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">عدنان سايجون</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> حيث كانوا ينافسون بدورهم </span><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rus_Be%C5%9Fleri" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الملحنين الروس الخمس</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. وكما كان متوقعا فإن عموم الشعب لم يتقبل هذا النوع الهجين من الموسيقى وقادهم ذلك للبحث عن بديل في الإذاعات الأجنبية كالإذاعات العربية مثل إذاعة القاهرة التي كان سكان محافظة أضنة يستطيعون إلتقاط أثيرها بسهولة. ومن بين الفنانين الذي كان سكان محافظة أضنة يستمعون له هو المغني المصري الراحل </span><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%C3%BClhalim_H%C3%A2f%C4%B1z" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الراحل عبد الحليم حافظ</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> كونه أدخل بعض العناصر الجديدة على الغناء العربي بآلات غربية جديدة كالترومبون وغيرها. ومع ازدياد توجه الشعب نحو الإذاعات العربية، علق نائب البرلمان أحمد شانكيري على هذا قائلا: أردنا منع الناس من الاستماع للموسيقى التركية الشعبية وتحفيزهم على الاستماع للموسيقى الغربية وإذا بهم لا يستمعون حتى للموسيقى التركية بل للموسيقى العربية". </span></p><br /><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">وخلال عشرينيات وثلاثينيات القرن الماضي وبما أن الموسيقى التركية التقليدية كانت تتعرض للتهميش المؤسسي الممنهج، سطع نجم الموسيقى المصرية بأعمالها التجريبية ومحاولتها لإدخال عناصر موسيقية جديدة في ألحانها. وقد كانت السينما من بين أهم القنوات التي كانت تصدر هذه الطفرة الموسيقية المتواجدة في الساحة الفنية المصرية. فقد كانت تركيا من قبل تقتني الأفلام من فرنسا، ولكن مع اندلاع الحرب وتغير الظروف تم التوجه نحو سينما أرخص وهي السينما المصرية وبذلك بدأت الأفلام المصرية تحتل الساحة الفنية التركية مع نهاية الثلاثينات واستمر هذا الوضع حتى نهاية الأربعينات. وقد كان الطابع العام لهذه الأفلام المصرية طابعا غنائيا موسيقيا، حيث يلعب العنصر الموسيقى دورا مهما في نص وحوار الفيلم. </span></p><br /><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">وأدى ازدهار هذه الأفلام في تركيا إلى حدوث توتر قاد إلى قرار يقضي بمنع أداء هذه الأغاني الموجودة في الأفلام المصرية بالعربية في سنة 1938. وهنا بدأت مرحلة أقلمة هذه الأغاني العربية إلى أغان تركية حيث يبقى اللحن والموسيقى كما هما ولكن الكلمات تتغير. وتم بعد ذلك الاستقرار على تغيير اللحن والكلام كلية لتلك الأغاني من قبل ملحنين أتراك الذين كانوا يقومون فقط بتغيير طفيف على اللحن الأصلي وينسبونه لأنفسهم. ومن بين الشخصيات التركية الموسيقية التي كانت سائدة خلال تلك الفترة هو </span><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadettin_Kaynak" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">سعد الدين كايناك</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> الذي طور بدوره أسلوبا جديدا من الموسيقى التركية التي يمكن إدماجها في الأفلام المصرية.</span></p><br /><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">وفي ظل هذا المنع المتواصل للموسيقى التركية وتضييق الخناق على الموسيقى الأجنبية الوافدة بشكل كبير من مصر، بزغ من بين كل هذا طابع موسيقي جديد تم تسميته بـ "موسيقى الأرابيسك". وكان </span><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%83%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%8A" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">أورهان جانجي باي</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> من بين أهم الأسماء التي تمكننا من فهم ماهية موسيقى الأرابيسك حيث كان ضليعا في الموسيقى التركية والشعبية والغربية وكان من بين القلائل الذين كان لديهم خبرة في هذه الأنواع الثلاثة. وبدأ أورهان جانجي باي مشوراه الفني بالموسيقى الغربية وهو في سن السادسة بمحافظة سامسون التركية، وقد شارك في العديد من الأفلام التركية وقد كان يتم تصويره على أنه ذلك الشاب القادم من خارج اسطنبول بتحصيل علمي قليل وموهبة فنية كبيرة. ومن بين أغانيه التي كانت سائدة خلال تلك الفترة نذكر: </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VRtEf-JT1fc" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Aşkınla ne garip hallere düştüm</span></a></p><br /><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">وجدير بالذكر أن موسيقى الأرابيسك ارتبطت بالأحياء القصديرية وسكانها الذين نزحوا من القرى والأرياف والمداشر خلال فترة الخمسينيات إلى غاية الثمانينات في موجة تعرضت لها عموم تركيا كنتيجة للأوضاع الاقتصادية المزرية التي كانوا يعانون منها. وقد توجه النازحون خلال تلك الفترة بشكل عام نحو أنطاليا وبورصا، واسطنبول وأنقرة وغيرها من المحافظات الكبيرة حيث انتشرت تلك الأحياء القصديرية بهذه المدن. وبوفود عنصر بشري جديد للمدينة، تولدت الحاجة لديهم للاستماع لطابع موسيقي يعكس طبيعة حياتهم وينقل معاناتهم اليومية بطريقة فنية تسليهم في كدحهم. فقد أرادت هذه الفئة الاستماع لما يرغبون به ومن هناك انطلق الملحنون في تأليف ألحان عوان بين الموسيقى الشعبية والعادية، وعليه فإن هذه الحاجة قد تولدت لديهم لدى وصولهم إلى المدينة وليس قبل وصولهم إليها وهي ذلك تعتبر موسيقى تابعة للمدينة والتي تولدت من حراكها، فهناك علاقة وثيقة بين موسيقى الأرابيسك وعملية التحول الاجتماعي التي كان يمر بها هؤلاء النازحون نحو المدينة. وليس هذا المسار الذي سلكته موسيقى الأرابيسك حكرا عليها وخاصا بها فقط، بل يمكننا ملاحظة نفس هذه المراحل في الطبوع الموسيقية الشعبية الأخرى التي نبعت من أعماق طبقات المجتمع الكادحة التي غالبا ما تكون مضطهدة أو مهمشة على غرار فن </span><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%88" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الفادو </span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">البرتغالي والفلامنكو الإسباني والجاز الأمريكي، وأيضا </span><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C3%AF" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">موسيقى الراي</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> الجزائرية والتي تحاكي نوع ما موسيقى الأرابيسك في بعض من عناصرها.</span></p><br /><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> ومن بين الحاضنات التي كانت تحوي موسيقى الأرابيسك هي "الدولمش" أو النقل الجماعي والتي ارتبطت ارتباطا وثيقا بموسيقى الأرابيسك، حيث كانت تؤدي وسيلة النقل هذه دور المسلي لركابها الذين كانوا ينتقلون بشكل يومي من الأحياء القصديرية التي كانت مترامية على أطراف المدينة، حيث كانوا ينتقلون إلى مركز المدينة من أجل البحث عن عمل أو لقضاء مآربهم. وكان نظام المواصلات هذا والممثل في "الدولمش" هو الشريان الذي يربطهم بالمدينة،وأغنية جانجي باي أسفله هي من بين الأغاني الكثيرة التي كثيرا ما كان يتم تشغيلها في سيارات "الدولمش":</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3jKNhX4Sv80" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ne sevenim var ne soranım var öyle yanlızım</span></a></p><br /><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">والمستمع لموسيقى الأرابيسك يلاحظ وجود آلات كثيرة ولكن آلة البغلما كن لديها حصة الأسد نسيج الأرابيسك وهي أيضا الممثلة للموسيقى التركية، حيث يعتبر الفنان أورهان جانجي باي أحد أعمدتها بدون منازع، والذي بدوره لم يتوقف عند الموروث بل قام بالتصرف في بعض ألحانه بإضافة بعض الألحان الأجنبية، ولعل خير مثال على ذلك هي أغنية "</span><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2zQEeDliNx0" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Batsın bu dünyayı</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">'' وأيضا " </span><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P9mLUhDnCk4" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Hatasız kul olmaz</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">'' حيث أدخل بعض العناصر اللحنية من طابع الفلامنكو، ومجددا فإن هذه الأغنية التي ذكرناها سابقا والتي تعني "فليذهب هذا العالم للجحيم" ماهي إلا تعبير عن صرخة ضد الظلم السائد وماهي إلا انعكاس لذلك الاحتياج المجتمعي والرغبة في الثورة على نظام قد غالى في اضطهاده، وهي في طبعها وعبقها شبيهة بأغنية الفرقة البريطانية الشهيرة بينك فلويد "</span><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MAe_w9a_IN8" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">We don't need no education</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">". ونظرا لارتباط موسيقى الأرابيسك بالأحياء القصديرية وبثقافة الدولمش، فقد احتقرتها بعض فئات المجتمع، وكانوا ينظرون إليها نظرة سلبية، ولكن أورهان جانجي باي يؤكد على أن أعمالها التي يُنظَر إليها بشكل سلبي ماهي في الحقيقة إلا امتداد للموسيقى التركية، وقد اكتسبت أعماله ومساهماته الفنية بعدا عميقا من الناحية الأدبية والفنية. ويجب الإشارة أيضا إلى أن حركات نزوح السكان التي شهدتها تركيا خلال تلك الفترة كانت أيضا نحو الخارج فبعضهم هاجر إلى ننوبارغ بألمانيا، حيث أن أعمال الجيل الأول من المهاجرين لألماينا كانت ذات طابع هزلي مثل أغنية متين توركوز: </span><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6zM6eJmnVMA" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Almanyda neler var</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">، وأما الجيل الثاني فقد كانت احتياجاته العاطفية مختلفة حيث كانت أغاني تلك الفترة تتميز بالحديث عن الوحدة والحزن والفقرولعل خير مثال على هذا الجيل هو المغنية </span><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C3%BCksel_%C3%96zkasap" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">يوكسال أوزكسب</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span></p><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">وقد كان الموضوع السائد لموسيقى الأرابيسك مرتبطا بالحب وكان عنصر الألم واللوعة والشوق والتوق للمحبوب دائما موجودا في هذا الحب الأرابيسكي. ومن أجل الخروج من هذا الحب الكليم، شهدت أيضا فترة الثمانينات محاولات لتقنين موسيقى الأرابيسك وذلك بتغيير اللحن أو الكلمات وإضافة ا بعض من المرح والسعادة واطراح عنصر الألم ومن بين أهم مغني الأرابيسك في هذا المسعى هو </span><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakk%C4%B1_Bulut" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">حقي بولوط</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> كأغنية: </span><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RjiLF44Ajzo" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Kıskanıyorum</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. ولكن وكما كان متوقعا، لم يكن من السهل التخلص من عنصر الألم الذي كان هو شريان هذا الطبع الذي يميزه عن باقي الطبوع الأخرى، وكان مصير هذه المحاولة الفشل الذريع. </span></p><br /><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ومن بين المحطات التي أثرت على مسار موسيقى الأرابيسك هو </span><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8_1980_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A7" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; text-decoration-line: underline; text-decoration-skip-ink: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الانقلاب الذي حدث سنة 1980</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> بتناقضاته المختلفة، والذي نتج عنه تشكيل حكومة عسكرية مما أدى إلى حدوث أزمات متعددة وعلى أصعدة مختلفة. وقد أرادت الحكومة خلال هذه الفترة فرض الثقافة التركية القومية، وكانت في نفس الوقت براغماتية نفعية توظف كل ما من شأنه أن يحفظ النظام العام ويقلل من الأزمات، وعليه فقد رأوا في موسيقى الأرابيسك وحفلاتها وأشرطتها التي انتشرت بشكل كبير خلال تلك الفترة مهدئا لطبقات المجتمع التركي التي كانت تمر بأوضاع مزرية وبالتالي لم تكن حكومة الانقلاب تلك تسعى بشكل واضح لاقتلاع الأرابيسك من الجذور رغم قدرتها على ذلك؟ </span></p><br /><br /><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">لقد منحت موسيقى الأرابيسك حركة فكرية تمكننا من معرفة وجهة الموسيقى والثقافة والمجتمع بعيدا عن السياسة والإيديولوجيا والإطارات الضيقة و الأدبيات التراثية المؤطرة، ومن بين الدروس التي يمكن أن نستقيها من موسيقى الأرابيسك هو أنه لا يمكن تغيير أن طابع فني بما في ذلك الموسيقى فقط بفرض قواعد تسن طريقة أدائه ولو تم فعل ذلك حقا فإن أثرها سيكون طيارا وسرعان ما سيزول. وأيضا فإن أي فن أو عمل أو حركة لا تواكب مستجدات العصر سيكون مصيرها كمصير أسواق الأشرطة السمعية التي كانت هي القلب النابض لموسيقى الأرابيسك، والتي أصبحت الآن - أي أسواق الأشرطة السمعية- مثل مدينة الأشباح لا يزورها إلا من يحن إلى أطلال الماضي. </span></p><div><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div></span>Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-2457663897963481192021-01-05T23:14:00.000+03:002021-01-05T23:14:08.207+03:00Review of Introducing Semantics Book<p> </p><span id="docs-internal-guid-0b0d9d78-7fff-607f-f6cb-e13df87d84f7"><h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #2e75b5; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Information about the book</span></h2><br /><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">AUTHOR: Nick Riemer</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">TITLE: Introducing Semantics</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">PUBLISHER: Cambridge University Press</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">YEAR: 2010</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Pages: 460</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">REVIEWER: Mehdi ZOUAOUI, Instructor</span></p></li></ul><h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-top: 18pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 16pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Summary</span></h2><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Introducing Semantics is a book that any serious aspiring researcher in linguistics should get down to and gain a solid background in the dynamics of this science. This academic work is the product of Dr. Nick Riemer, a senior lecturer at the University of Sydney, who has a major ınterest in the history of language, linguistics and semantics. Riemer divided the book into 11 chapters, with each explaining aspects related to semantics that we will be going over.</span></p><h3 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> 1- Meaning in the empirical study of language</span></h3><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The author begins the book by giving an overview about the definition and the scope of semantics and lays down the foundational questions that semanticists try to answer:</span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">What are meanings?</span></p></li></ul><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">What explains relations between meanings?</span></p></li></ul><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">How do the meanings of words combine to create the meanings of sentences?</span></p></li></ul><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">How do meanings relate to the minds of language users, and to the things words refer to?</span></p></li></ul><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">How do the meanings of words interact with syntactic rules and principles?</span></p></li></ul><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; margin-left: -0.566929pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Do all languages express the same meanings?</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; margin-left: -0.566929pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">How do meanings change?</span></p></li></ul><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">With these questions in hand, semantics has several sub-fields and one of the most important ones are:</span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Lexical semantics: which is the study of word meaning.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Phrasal semantics: which is the study of the principles which govern the construction of the meaning of phrases and of sentence meaning out of compositional combinations of individual lexemes.</span></p></li></ul><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">It is important not to confuse semantics with pragmatics. The latter studies the basic literal meanings of words as considered as parts of a language system. The former concentrates on how these basic meanings are assigned referents in different contexts, and the differing (ironic, metaphorical,.) uses to which language undergoes.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">So, meaning is the fulcrum of this book and whenever we talk about the notion of meaning in English, we are interacting with it into three ways:</span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Meaning: describing meaning by emphasizing the speaker’s intentions</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Use: description in terms of use limits itself to a consideration of equivalences between the piece of language in question and an assumed norm.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Truth: that emphasizes the objective facts of the situation by concentrating on the relation between language and reality.</span></p></li></ul><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In order to foreground the dynamics between language, mind, world and meaning, the author introduces the famous semiotic triangle (see figure 2 in the appendix), often called the triangle of reference or meaning, first published in The Meaning of Meaning book (1923) by Ogden and Richards. The semiotic triangle comprises the following elements:</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Thoughts: which reflects that it came from a human being and therefore a brain product.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Symbol: whatever perceptible token we choose to express the speaker’s intended meaning.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Referents: whatever things, events, or situations in the world the language is about.</span></p></li></ul><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The author then provides an account of circular definition and suggests some substitutes to get over this issue. The first one is to shift gears towards the referent or denotation as the major component of meaning. However, one problem of referential theory is that there are some words that are hard to invoke in the real world, such as abstract words, and grammatical ones. Another suggestion is to look at meaning as a fixed conceptual or mental representation instantiated in our minds in some stable, finite medium, and which our thought consists of. Another suggestion is to look at meanings as brain states which involves intentionality.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">An alternative to the three previous enterprises is the view that a word’s meaning consists in the way we use it. This view has been adopted by behaviorist psychologists such as Skinner (1957), and linguists such as Bloomfield (1933). Despite its success, the principal objection against use theories of meaning is the mind-boggling variety of situations in which we may use linguistic forms. </span></p><br /><h3 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> 2- Meaning and definition</span></h3><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the second chapter, the author posits that an understanding of definition is a lynchpin for any attempt to develop a conceptual theory of word meaning. So, the definitions found in dictionaries result from a word-based, or semasiological approach to meaning. This approach starts with a language’s individual lexemes and tries to specify the meaning of each one. The other approach, the onomasiological one, has the opposite logic where it starts with a particular meaning, and lists the various forms available in the language for its expression.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In this regard, Riem discusses the units of meaning and the minimal meaning-bearing units of language. So, the problem of wordhood can be approached at two levels:</span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Phonological rules and processes: where stress is a good indicator of the phonological word.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Grammatical level: cohesiveness, fixed order and conventionalized coherence and meaning. However, the level of grammatical structure a meaning should be attributed to may be problematic, and boundary cases, where meanings seem to straddle several grammatical units, occur frequently.</span></p></li></ul><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The author then moves to the ways of defining meaning which are:</span></p><br /><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Real and nominal definition: according to Aristotle, a definition (horismos) has two quite different interpretations: in defining,’ says Aristotle, ‘one exhibits either what the object is or what its name means’. We can therefore consider a definition either as a summation of the essence or inherent nature of a thing (real definition; Latin res ‘thing’), or as a description of the meaning of the word which denotes this thing (nominal definition; Latin nomen ‘name, noun’).</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Definition by ostension: by pointing out the objects which they denote.</span></p></li></ul><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Definition by synonymy: one problem with this strategy is that it is possible to challenge the identity between the definiens (the metalanguage word proposed as the definition; Latin ‘defining’) and the definiendum (the object language word for which a definition is required; Latin ‘needing to be defined’).</span></p></li></ul><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Definition by context: which is to situate the word in a system of wider relations through which the specificity of the definiendum can be seen.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Definition by genus and differentia: which is the theory that Aristotle developed in the Posterior Analytics. According to Aristotle, definition involves specifying the broader class to which the definiendum belongs (often called the definiendum genus), and then showing the distinguishing feature of the definiendum (the differentia) which distinguishes it from the other members of this broader class.</span></p></li></ul><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">It is important here to mention that a minimum requirement on a term’s definition to check its accuracy is that the substitution of the definiens for the definiendum should be truth preserving in all contexts.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> However, one of the most frequent criticisms of definitional theories of semantics is that no satisfying definition of a word has ever been formulated.</span></p><h3 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">3- The scope of meaning I: external context </span></h3><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the third chapter, the author talks about the relation of meaning with external contexts, which is an essential element to have an adequate description of meaning. One of the most basic types of context is the extralinguistic context of reference, which concerns the entities an expression is about. It was the German logician and philosopher of mathematics Gottlob Frege (1848–1925) who first saw the significance of this distinction between an expression’s referent and its sense.Frege conceptualized three aspects of a word’s total semantic effect:</span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Force: which covered whether it was a statement or a question.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Tone: which refers to differences of register and connotation.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Sense.</span></p></li></ul><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">There are certain types of expressions, called deictic or indexical expressions (or deictics or indexicals), which we can define as those which refer to some aspect of the context of utterance as an essential part of their meaning and among them we can mention:</span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Person deixis: by which speaker (I), hearer (you) and other entities relevant to the discourse (he / she / it / they) are referred to.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Temporal deixis: (now, then, tomorrow)</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Discourse deixis: which refers to other elements of the discourse in which the deictic expression occurs (A: You stole the cash. B: That’s a lie).</span></p></li></ul><br /><h3 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">4- The scope of meaning II: interpersonal context</span></h3><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the fourth chapter, the author introduces the interpersonal context in the scope of meaning, starting by the elocutionary force and speech acts.Givón (1984: 248), in this context, noted that the fundamental role of assertion in language can be seen because of four large-scale features of human social organization:</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">• Communicative topics that are often outside the immediate, perceptually available range.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">• Much pertinent information is not held in common by the participants in the communicative exchange.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">• The rapidity of change in the human environment necessitates periodic updating of the body of shared background knowledge.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">• The participants are often strangers.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the same realm and in his attempt to identify acts present in utterances, Austin divided and defined acts as follows:</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">• Locutionary act: the act of saying something.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">• Illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">• Perlocutionary act: the act performed by saying something.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The author then moves to speaker’s intention and hearer’s inference, where the idea that conventions underlie the illocutionary force of utterances has been much criticized. The major problem with such a theory is that it proves to be difficult to state what the convention behind any speech act might be. Added to that, linguistic communication is an intentional-inferential process, in which hearers try to infer speakers’ intentions on the basis of the ‘clues’ provided by language.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> It is necessary to separate those aspects of an utterance’s effect with its use in a particular context from those created by the meanings of its constituent elements. For this purpose, we have the notion of conversational implicature proposed by Grice.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The implicatures of an utterance are what it is necessary to believe the speaker is thinking, and intending the hearer to think, to account for what they are saying. Also, conventional </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">implicatures are what we might otherwise refer to as the standard meanings of linguistic expressions, and these conversational implicatures are those that arise in particular contexts of use, without forming part of the word’s characteristic or conventional force. Grice started the famous Gricean maxim which are:</span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The maxim of quality.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The maxim of quantity.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The maxim of relevance.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The maxim of manner.</span></p></li></ul><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">However, the Gricean maxims must not be seen as universal principles governing the entire range of human conversational behavior, since conversational maxims seem to vary situationally and cross-culturally, and the set of maxims operative in any culture is a matter for empirical investigation.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the end of the chapter, the author mentions relevance, which is an important notion in the Gricean enterprise developed by Sperber and Wilson. For them language use is an ostensive-inferential process where the speaker ostensibly provides the hearer with evidence of their meaning in the form of words and, combined with the context. This linguistic evidence enables the hearer to infer the speaker’s meaning. Every utterance for Sperber and Wilson communicates a presumption of its own optimal relevance.</span></p><h3 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">5- Analyzing and distinguishing meanings</span></h3><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the fifth chapter, the author moves to the analysis of meaning and semantic relations that glue them together in which knowing an expression’s meaning does not involve knowing its definition or inherent semantic content. </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Relationships like synonymy, antonymy, meronymy, and so on all concern the paradigmatic relations of an expression, or the relations which determine the choice of one lexical item over another. These lexical relations are:</span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Antonymy: characterized as a relationship of incompatibility between two terms regarding some given dimension of contrast. Non-gradable antonyms do not admit a midpoint, such as male-female or pass-fail. A gradable pair of antonyms names points on a scale which contains a midpoint.</span></p></li></ul><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Meronymy (Greek meros: ‘part’) is the relation of part to whole: hand is a meronym of arm, seed is a meronym of fruit, blade is a meronym of knife.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Hyponymy (Greek hypo- ‘under’) is the lexical relation described in English by the phrase kind / type / sort of.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Taxonomy shows five ranks, each of which includes all those below it and every rank in the hierarchy is thus one particular kind of the rank above it. </span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Synonymy is a context-bound phenomenon where two words are synonyms in a certain given context, whereas for others it is context-free. If two words are synonymous they are identical in meaning in all contexts.</span></p></li></ul><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">We should know that semantic relations reveal aspects of meaning is one motivation for a componential approach to semantic analysis. Thus, The information in componential analysis is similar to the information contained in a definition. In principle, anything that can form part of a definition can also be rephrased in terms of semantic components. Its embodiment in binary features (i.e. features with only two values, + or −) represents a translation into semantics of the principles of structuralist phonological analysis, which used binary phonological features like [± voiced], [± labial] [± nasal], etc. </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The author then moves to the term polysemy, which is reserved for words like ‘pièce’ that show a collection of semantically related senses. We can, therefore, define polysemy as the possession by a single phonological form of several conceptually related meanings. A word is, in that sense, monosemous if it contains only a single meaning. For that can be tested by means of:</span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The definitional test</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">: that identifies the number of senses of a word with the number of separate definitions needed to convey its meaning accurately.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Logical test: </span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">A word (or phrase) is polysemous on this test if it can be simultaneously true and false of the same referent.</span></p></li></ul><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">One possible alternative to the view of words having a determinate and finite number of senses would be to think of a word’s meaning as a continuum of increasingly fine distinctions open to access at different levels of abstraction</span></p><h3 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">6- Logic as a representation of meaning</span></h3><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the sixth chapter, the author heads to logic, which is the study of the nature of valid inferences and reasoning. Logic is important to linguistics for at least three reasons:</span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; margin-left: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The study of logic is one of the oldest comprehensive treatments of questions of meaning.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; margin-left: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Logical concepts inform a wide range of modern formal theories of semantics and are also crucial in research in computational theories of language and meaning.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; margin-left: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Logical concepts provide an enlightening point of contrast with natural language.</span></p></li></ul><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">One of the crucial elements in logic is the notion of proposition, which is something that serves as the premise or conclusion of an argument. In that regard, there are different logical operators such as conjunction, disjunction and material conditional. Despite its instrumentality, many linguists maintain that discontinuities between natural language and logic are to be explained by the fact that natural languages possess a pragmatic dimension, which prevents the logical operators from finding exact equivalents in ordinary discourse. </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Reference and truth are considered as the semantic facts when it comes to logical approaches to semantics. Chierchia and McConnell-Ginet (2000: 72) said that, ‘if we ignore the conditions under which S [a sentence] is true, we cannot claim to know the meaning of S. Thus, knowing the truth conditions for S is at least necessary for knowing the meaning of S.’</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Riem also discusses here the relation between propositions which we can summarize as follows:</span></p><br /><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Entailment: when we say that p entails q, we mean that:</span></p></li></ul><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> • whenever p is true, q must be true.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> • A situation describable by p must also be a situation describable by q.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> • p and not q is contradictory (can’t be true in any situation)</span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Presupposition: a proposition p presupposes another proposition q if both p and the negation of p entail q. </span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Contradictories, contraries, and subcontraries: contradiction is a pair of propositions with opposite truth values. </span></p></li></ul><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The author ends the chapter with the remark that despite that logic is useful for language, there seem to be areas of clear incompatibility between logical constructs and the natural language terms which partly translate them. </span></p><br /><h3 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt;"><span style="color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">7- Meaning and cognition I: categorization and cognitive semantics</span></h3><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the seventh chapter, the author considers the meaning from a cognitive perspective, where he starts with the idea that words in natural language can be seen as categories. In fact, categorization is an important topic in semantics because we can see language as a means of categorizing experience.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">As seen in chapter 6, standard logical approaches to language are two-valued approaches. This means that they only recognize two truth values, true and false. However, another way of describing this view is the idea that definitions are lists of necessary and sufficient conditions for particular meanings. Aristotelian categories have the following two important characteristics:</span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The conditions on their membership can be made explicit by specifying lists of necessary and sufficient conditions.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Their membership is determinate:whether or not something is a member of the category can be checked by seeing whether it fulfills the conditions.</span></p></li></ul><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Also, the author postulates that category membership is graded and is at the heart of the prototype theory of categorization, which is most associated with the psychologist Eleanor Rosch and her colleagues. However, there are some problems when it comes to prototype categories in terms of attributes:</span></p><br /><ol style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="2" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; margin-left: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">attributes can often only be identified after the category has been identified.</span></p></li><li aria-level="2" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; margin-left: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">attributes are context-dependent.</span></p></li><li aria-level="2" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; margin-left: 36pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">there are many alternative descriptions of the attributes of a category.</span></p></li></ol><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Riem then moves to the various approaches cognitive semantics covers which are characterized by a holistic vision of the place of language within cognition. For many investigators, this involves the following commitments:</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">• A rejection of a modular approach to language: which assumes that language is one of several independent modules or faculties within cognition.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">• An identification of meaning with conceptual structure.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">• A rejection of the syntax–semantics distinction.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">• A rejection of the semantics–pragmatics distinction.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Despite the practicality of cognitive semantics, there are some problems with it:</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">• The ambiguity of diagrammatic representations.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">• The problem of determining the core meaning.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">• The indeterminate and speculative nature of the analyses.</span></p><h3 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">8- Meaning and cognition II: formalizing and simulating conceptual representations</span></h3><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the eighth chapter, the author looks at some attempts to formalize the conceptual representations of the language. According to Jackendoff, conceptual semantics aims to situate semantics ‘in an overall psychological framework, integrating it not only with linguistic theory but also with theories of perception, cognition and conscious experience’. Jackendoff claims that a decompositional method is necessary to explore conceptualization. </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The author confirms that computer technology has taken on great importance in linguistics generally since the 1970s, and semantics is no exception. Computer architectures certainly are the closest simulations available for the complexity of the brain, but they still vastly underperform humans in linguistic ability.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">One of the topics related to lexicon is word-sense disambiguation which can identify two main approaches to word-sense disambiguation in computational linguistics:</span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Selectional restriction approach that generates complete semantic representations for all the words in a sentence and then eliminates those which violate selectional restrictions coded in the component words. </span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The other approach uses the immediate context of the target word as a clue in identifying the intended sense.</span></p></li></ul><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> It is important to mention Pustejovskian semantic approach, dubbed as the generative lexicon approach</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, that claims to solve many of the problems by adopting a different picture of lexical information. Pustejovsky criticizes the standard view of the lexicon, on which we associate each lexeme with a fixed number of senses. </span></p><h3 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">9- Meaning and morphosyntax I: the semantics of grammatical categories </span></h3><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the ninth chapter and the chapter that follows, the author tackles some semantic phenomena related to morphosyntax. Talking about the semantics of parts of speech is analyzing a language grammatically and involves analyzing it into a variety of elements as well as structures such as phonemes, morphemes, and words, and, within the words, syntactic categories of various types. Among these categories there are the parts of speech (also known as lexical or grammatical categories): noun, verb, adjective, determiner, and so on. However, parts of speech systems vary among the languages of the world. In a typical sentence of any language, we can identify constituents which are translated by, and seem to function similarly, nouns and verbs in English or other familiar languages. Another delimiting parts of speech is based on:</span></p><br /><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0; padding-inline-start: 48px;"><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Morpho-distributional criteria: A distributional approach to parts of speech classifies parts of speech on the basis of the way they are in sentences. One way of defining these patterns is to advance sample contexts which can serve as test frames.</span></p></li><li aria-level="1" dir="ltr" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><p dir="ltr" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Semantic criteria: one obvious way of delimiting the categories is based on semantic criteria. In other words, on the basis of commonalities in the meanings of words in any class.</span></p></li></ul><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The author moves on to the semantics of morphosyntactic categories such as tense, time, and aspect. Due to the difficulty of fathoming the notion of time, Saint Augustine (354–430 AD) once said: ‘What then is time? If no one asks me, I know what it is. If I wish to explain it to him who asks, I do not know.’ Tense is generally the name of the class of grammatical markers used to signal the location of situations in time and one hallmark of English in tense is the availability of a contrast between the simple past or preterite tense and the present perfect. This perfect is often explained as conveying the continuing relevance of the past action. Another morphosyntactic category is the concept of aspect. In that line, different tenses show different locations of the event in time and different aspects show different ways of presenting time within the event itself as flowing, or as stationary. The aspectual system is about how the internal temporal constituency of an event is viewed and it’s about whether the event is viewed from the distance, as a single unanalysable whole, with its beginning, middle and end foreshortened into one, or from close-up, so that the distinct stages of the event can be seen individually. </span></p><br /><h3 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">10- Meaning and morphosyntax II: verb meaning and argument structure</span></h3><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the tenth chapter, the author moves from word level to clause level and the relation between a verb and its participants, often called argument structure. Verbs are the core of the clause and play an important role in the interaction between meaning and syntax. This is because verbs are typically accompanied by nouns which refer to the participants in the event and these participants receive a range of morphosyntactic markers. One challenge of a verb and its participants is, in fact, a problem syntax-semantics interface, or generative grammar. This latter imposed strict division between different components of the grammar: syntax, phonology, semantics and so on, and each of which is assumed to have its own explanatory principles and structure. It was assumed that the plausible arguments of all verbs could be classified into a few classes, called thematic roles, participant roles, semantic roles or theta roles. </span></p><h3 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">11- Semantic variation and change</span></h3><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the eleventh chapter, the author talks about semantic variation, synchronic and diachronic, and the resulting change in meaning. The author starts by mentioning the difference between universality, variation of sense and universality, and variation of reference. In addition to the previous point, the author talks about the problems of the appropriate metalanguage in undertaking cross-linguistic or historical semantic study. Having said that, one of the important characteristics of semantic change is that it crucially involves polysemy and we have to understand that a word does not suddenly change from meaning A to meaning B in a single move. Instead, the change happens via an intermediate stage in which the word has both A and B among its meanings. Thus, early studies of semantic change set up broad categories of change described with general labels like ‘weakening’, ‘strengthening’ and so on. One of these categories is grammaticalization that can be defined as the process by which open-class content words turn into closed-class function forms by losing elements of their meaning, and by a restriction in their possible grammatical contexts.</span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The author then moves to semantic typology that focuses on the question of cross-linguistic regularities in denotation or extension. Semantic typology also attempts to answer questions related to the range of variation shown by the world’s languages in words for colours, body parts, and basic actions and whether there are any universal or widespread similarities in the boundaries between different words in each of these domains. Interestingly, despite the fact that body parts being, per se, universally shared, cross-linguistic investigation reveals that there is vast variety in the extensions of human body-part terms and different languages divide color in various incompatible ways </span></p><h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-top: 18pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 16pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Evaluation</span></h2><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Victorian historian Thomas Carlyle once said, reflecting on the worthlessness of economics:”Not a "gay science", I should say, like some we have heard of; no, a dreary, desolate and, indeed, quite abject and distressing one; what we might call, by way of eminence, the dismal science’’</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. That view towards economics is often shared by some learners studying semantics since it is a blend of logic, philosophy, mathematics, and language. This shared feeling that semantics is a dismal science may originate from the fact that it may be challenging for some to see how its concepts fit in real world problems. However, in today’s world, semantics plays a crucial role in many fields such as technology where researchers depend on it a lot in artificial intelligence, which aspires to simulate and clone human behavior and unique feature that distinguishes him from other creatures: language. </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Introducing Semantics is one of the must-read references for linguistics majors because it provides a sound overview of this science that is widely used in natural language processing, voice recognition, logic and so on. Even though the book is meant to be an introductory textbook for learners, it may not be suitable for those who have just entered the world of linguistics in general and semantics in particular. This is due to its digression in some chapters which may not be useful for a first timer. Therefore, the book is considered to be a good read for intermediate majors, junior researchers, those who are in their graduate degrees in Linguistics, or a hardworking undergraduate student. The book also assumes that a reader should have some background in linguistics and by that it would be a perfect fit for those who have good knowledge about logic and philosophy, which is in itself a shortcoming in the book. In saying so, the book should have given an adequate introduction to philosophy and logic to make the job easier for the reader to follow along with the concepts and dynamics of semantics explained in the book. Also, the book is a good companion for those who want to study semantics by themselves thanks to the activities provided by the end of each chapter. The author also provides the reader with references and extra readings that they can refer to for more in-depth understanding of the concepts tackled in the book. However, I think that it would have been more instrumental if there were systematic answers to the questions and how a semanticist would approach them as it is challenging for many students to put theory into practice. As a way of strengthening the readers’ understanding, it provides a plethora of examples from different world languages in an attempt to objectify and universalize semantic phenomena found throughout different languages. One perk that book offers at the end is a glossary that contains semantic and linguistic terms mentioned in the book.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Since the author has stated that the present book is designed for undergraduate students, it wouldn’t be wise for non linguistics majors who need or want to study semantics such as informatics students, philosophy majors and mathematics to start with this book. Thus, the present book is exclusively for linguistics majors who are in their second or third year.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The date of the publication of the book is 2010, and therefore 20 years has passed since its publication, which means that some of its data may be outdated given the fact that this field is constantly changing.The book instigates research through some questions provided in the activities that require critical thinking and points out to questions that are yet to be answered by researchers. </span></p><h3 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">About the reviewer:</span></h3><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Mehdi ZOUAOUI is a lecturer at Istanbul University with an interest in general linguistics, education, E-learning, and global affairs. He’s a frequent article writer on E-learning affairs.</span></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></p><h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-top: 18pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 16pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Footnotes</span></h2><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;"><span style="background-color: white; white-space: pre-wrap;">1- </span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">Semasiology (from Greek: σημασία, semasia, "signification") is a discipline of linguistics concerned with the question "what does the word X mean?". It studies the meaning of words regardless how they are pronounced.[1] It is the opposite of onomasiology, a branch of lexicology that starts with a concept or object and asks for its name, i.e., "how do you express X?" whereas semasiology starts with a word and asks for its meanings. "Semasiology - Wikipedia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semasiology. Accessed 20 Dec. 2020.</span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">2- </span>The rationale of this requirement is the principle of identity under substitution articulated by the seventeenth-century German philosopher Leibniz: eadem sunt, quae sibi mutuo substitui possunt, salva veritate (Latin for ‘things are the same which can be substituted one for the other with truth intact’).</span></div><div><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;">3- </span><span style="font-size: x-small;">The most comprehensive attempt to model lexical knowledge on a computer is the WordNet project, which has been running since 1985. WordNet is an online lexical database which sets out to represent and organize lexical semantic information in a psychologically realistic form that facilitates maximally efficient digital manipulation.</span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-small;">4- "Generative lexicon - Wikipedia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_lexicon. Accessed 5 Nov. 2020.</span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-small;">5- "The dismal science - Wikipedia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_dismal_science. Accessed 7 Nov. 2020.</span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: x-small;"><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></span></div><h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-top: 18pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 16pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="display: inline-block; position: relative; width: 100px;"></span></span></h2><h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-top: 18pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 16pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Appendix</span></h2><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Figure 01 (Introducing Semantics, Nick Riemer):</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="border: none; display: inline-block; height: 301px; overflow: hidden; width: 624px;"><img height="301" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/pQ6_Fl8hfTP1uAMdJ3t44PCs12yelUfKfbKJJjeJEZ7PdQ_mkws7Sh14GQaRWoGPzIbZ3MAonH-26kKbAnhR6yasxajnL-EHAI_gvhHgbz-hw75nwXImJ74UX5ObGO_Q69Qm7T10" style="margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" width="624" /></span></span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Figure 02: Semiotic Triangle (Introducing semantics, Nick Riemer):</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="border: none; display: inline-block; height: 297px; overflow: hidden; width: 624px;"><img height="297" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/0sIErJK9jqFnGNPulVuEJ5rxfp5R2BqrjK6HpRntBeit6rEL-5Y4OffO9UH6GceXB_BFHh2cn5uLLs2q_SoxSRktyhnuvoqfJmbvpC6nclP7MfCGbNGiECvBLf1_Rw-WVuKkIk1W" style="margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" width="624" /></span></span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Figure 03: Classification of definition (Introducing semantics, Nick Riemer)</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="border: none; display: inline-block; height: 169px; overflow: hidden; width: 624px;"><img height="169" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/3zLRHuGOG6_Fg2VGhKdaO4g5XxyGn1YjPoln7lANepls2Y_F_G525TpdPnqN0UpiXXCDkN6_cmEnw6UQhpQoU0Vnrja27_Es0Rtd3IDrEydImXDq5Vg1VPeDdIei3E2FHvljZiV3" style="margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" width="624" /></span></span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Figure 04: The square of opposition</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="border: none; display: inline-block; height: 359px; overflow: hidden; width: 624px;"><img height="359" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/88sp-Ps-1lzZh5Bp6TNRWdh1UcZK8NYsyXNvxvyet02JFpK0pGnbkH3BBiOPdu-ZF8ilFPeSRtix9XLXXyLOKF5RljnNiB9fxRD2EHIs1EsnjdAxuWftbXHbHokjwzRM4AmHrMe4" style="margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" width="624" /></span></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Source: Introducing Semantics (Nick Riemer)</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="display: inline-block; position: relative; width: 100px;"></span></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Figure 05: Typology of tense-aspect interaction</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="border: none; display: inline-block; height: 541px; overflow: hidden; width: 624px;"><img height="541" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/uG3OCexYT9P5SPDDcKE_jI0bmoQjzAX5wDmQcdA8HihL1qMoqJ88p-OjFZUiAxc9tVMzxOmFn3VWmvZpjxeIu1wzub-ADwm3-1CdTZmXnwBVbgDurdlgEetUHe7KzL23gmZR9eS9" style="margin-left: 0px; margin-top: 0px;" width="624" /></span></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Source: Introducing Semantics (329)</span></p><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></span>Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-62202111271915129972020-10-29T23:07:00.000+03:002020-10-29T23:07:16.407+03:00العربية في تركيا: ما بين فصيحة مقدسة وعاميات مطلسمة<p> </p><span id="docs-internal-guid-7cd691f1-7fff-fa8b-9e41-e0c6b6c38f11"><h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt; text-align: right;"><span style="color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">مقدمة</span><span style="color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">:</span></h3><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">مما لاشك فيه أن العربية اكتسبت خلال السنوات الأخيرة مكانة مهمة في عموم تركيا لعدة أسباب من بينها الحراك السياسي الذي أحاط ولا يزال يحيط بتركيا على الصعيد المحلي و الجهوي والدولي منه. حيث نشاهد بشكل واضح أن البلدان العربية المتاخمة لحدود تركيا على غرار سوريا والعراق ومصر باتت تعاني من أزمات سياسية حادة أدت بكثير من مواطنيها إلى الهجرة نحو تركيا ساعين نحو غد أو حتى يوم أفضل بعيدا عن الاضطهاد والتيه السياسي الذي تعاني منه هذه البلدان. فقد جاء العرب وجاءت معهم العربية وازدادت أهميتها و تولدت هناك قيمة مضافة للمشهد التركي و يتضح هذا الأمر من خلال المدارس التي تعنى بتدريس العربية للناطقين بغيرها. وهذا الأمر يدفعنا للتساؤل عن ماهية العربية التي صاحبت العرب إلى تركيا: هل هي تلك العربية الفصيحة أو تلك الرطانة التي يتحدثون بها في بلدانهم. و سنحاول من خلال هذه المقالة أن نلقي الضوء على واقع العربية في تركيا من وجهة نظر لسانية موضوعية مسلطين الضوء على العربية الفصحى واللهجات المنبثقة عنها.</span></p><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ولا محالة أن الخوض في موضوع العربية في تركيا يستلزم أن نعرج على العربية في موطنها الأصلي. فالمتابع للقضية اللغوية في الوطن العربي تتبين له تلك الهوة بين ما يتحدثه العرب ويكتبونه و بين ما يتعلمونه، وقد خلق هذا الأمر التباسا يدعو للتأمل من قبل أهل اللغة عن جدوى تعلم العربية في شكلها الفصيح من قبل الناطقين بغيرها، والتي لن يجدوها، كما هو معروف بالمشاهدة، إن سافروا إلى البلدان العربية، غالبا إلا في مراسلات الدوائر الرسمية. وعليه يرى الكثير أنه من بين الأسباب الوجيهة التي أدت إلى هذه الحالة هو نزوح عدد معتبر من المنظرين في مجال تعليم العربية إلى المنهج المعياري الذي لا يصف اللغة بشكلها الحالي، بل يركز على كيف يجب أن تكون اللغة ، و يغفلون بذلك مبدأ هاما من مبادئ اللسانيات الذي ينص على أن اللغة باختلاف مشاربها، تختلف وتتبدل باختلاف الظروف المحيطة بها وأنه إن لم يكن هناك تعديل حازم، و تأقلم مبصر، وإرادة لغوية رشيدة بدعم سياسي ملموس، فإن أي تغيير يفتقد إلى هذه العناصر الحيوية كان قاصرا و لا يخدم اللغة بأي حال من الأحوال.</span></p><h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt; text-align: right;"><span style="color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">أمور لا بد من فهمها</span></h3><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">هناك العديد من الأسباب التي أدت إلى اتساع الهوة بين العربية الفصيحة والعامية فضلا عن الأسباب التاريخية والاقتصادية والسياسية واللغوية بطبيعة الحال. ومحل حديثنا في هذه المقالة هو الجانب اللغوي، ولكن قبل الدخول في هذا المعترك، وجب علينا أن نتطرق إلى بعض المفاهيم المتعلقة بموضوعنا هذا والتي من شأنها أن ترفع اللبس نسبيا عن بعض المسائل المتعلقة بهذا الموضوع.</span></p><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><h4 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ماهو الفرق بين اللغة، و اللهجة، واللكنة؟ </span></h4><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">اللغة في تعريفها البسيط هي نظام اتصالات يستند على رموز صوتية أو حركية ومقابل بصري لها من أجل إيصال فكرة من مرسل إلى مستقبل. أما بالنسبة للهجة فهي هي اختلاف أهل اللغة الواحدة في استخدامهم للغة من الناحية النحوية والتركيبية والصوتية أيضا. أما بالنسبة للكنة فهو اختلاف أهل المصر الواحد في طريقة نطقهم للكلمات والحروف وأيضا النسق النبري. فعلى سبيل مثال نقول: اللغة العربية تنقسم إلى لهجة مشرقية ولهجة مغاربية، واللهجات المغاربية تنقسم إلى لكنة ليبية وتونسية وجزائرية ومغربية.</span></p><br /><h4 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ماهي الازدواجية والثنائية اللغوية؟</span></h4><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">بدون الخوض في شجون هذا الموضوع، سنعتمد التعريف القائل بأن الثنائية اللغوية هي قدرة المتكلم على تكلم لغتين أو أكثر وكأنها لغته الأم. أما بالنسبة للازدواجية اللغوية فهي تعايش صنفين للغة الواحدة داخل نفس البيئة أو بمعنى آخر هي استخدام العامية والفصحى في نفس السياق اللغوي.</span></p><h4 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">هل للعربية أنواع؟</span></h4><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">احتدم في السنوات الأخيرة جدل واسع النطاق في ربوع المنطقة العربية بخصوص وضع الحدود الفاصلة بين الفصيح من اللغة والعامي منه. وقد وضعت تقسيمات تعتمد على الزمان في تحديد أنواع اللغة العربية. ففي اللسانيات الحديثة يرى العديد من الباحثين أنه يمكن تقسيم العربية إلى قديمة أو كلاسيكية، و حديثة ( والتي يعبر عنها العديد من علماء اللغة الغربيين بالعامية خاصة السورية والمصرية منها). ولكن يرفض العديد من الباحثين حتى مصطلح العربية الحديثة لأن هذا الأمر يقتضي ضمنيا التخلي عن الممارسات القديمة للغة العربية باعتبارها تحفة أثرية وليست شيئا حاضرا. </span></p><h4 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">هل العربية أفضل لغة في العالم؟</span></h4><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">وفي نفس الوقت يعتبر من الإجحاف ومن الذاتية القول بأن اللغة العربية هي أفضل لغة في العالم كون هذه النتيجة تخالف صريح المعقول وصحيح المنقول. فنزول القرآن باللغة العربية إنما هو للغة القوم الذي خرج منه نبيهم وكيف ذلك والله عز وجل يقول في محكم تنزيله:"وما أرسلنا من رسول إلا بلسان قومه ليبين لهم</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">"(1). ويقول ابن حزم في هذا السياق في من يقضي بأفضلية اللغة :"وهذا جهل لأن كل سامع لغة ليست لغته ولا يفهمها فهي عنده في النصاب الذي ذكر جالينوس ولا فرق في نظره بينها وبين نباح الكلاب ونقيق الضفادع</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">"</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 17.3333px; white-space: pre-wrap;">(2)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.وعلى منوال ابن حزم يؤكد الدكتور عبد الرحمان المسدي في كتابه " الهوية اللغوية" أن من أم المعضلات في موقف العرب اليوم من لغتهم القومية تتمثل في الوهم الذي ورثوه حول قدسية غيبية ترعاها</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 17.3333px; white-space: pre-wrap;">(3)</span></p><h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt; text-align: right;"><span style="color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">التحديات التي تواجه مناهج اللغة العربية ومصمميها:</span></h3><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0;"><li dir="rtl" style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><h4 dir="rtl" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">العربية أم الرطانة:</span></h4></li></ul><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ازدهر في السنوات الأخيرة في تركيا سوق تعليم اللغة العربية وما يتضمن هذا المجال من تصميم مناهج تعليمية للناطقين بغيرها، فما فتئت العديد من المؤسسات الحكومية والخاصة على حد سواء في الحشد والتأييد لصالح اللغة العربية وتحبيب الطلبة والمتعلمين لها لدواع عديدة لا يسعنا المجال لذكرها هنا. ومما يلفت النظر هو حيرة العديد من دارسي اللغة العربية من جدوى تعلم العربية: أيتعلمون الفصيحة وهي قليلة التوظيف في وطنها، أم يتعلمون تلك الرطانات متعددة الأشكال والألوان والتي تختلف باختلاف البلد والمنطقة؟ أما الوضع في البلاد العربية فهو بدوره أيضا لا يخلو من السفسطائية السلبية حيث لا تزال العديد من الطوائف والمذاهب الفكرية ترفع عقائرها وتنادي بالتخلي عن العربية واطراحها واتخاذ العامية كبديل لها، محتجين في ذلك بحتمية تغير اللغة مقارنين بذلك التغيرات التي طرأت على لغات العالم الأخرى على غرار الانجليزية والفرنسية وحتى التركية. فعملية ذوبان اللغة بين ظهراني أهليها يوما بعد يوم يشاهده القاصي والداني وهو موجود بالمشاهدة ومعلوم بالعقل بالضرورة.</span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0;"><li dir="rtl" style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><h4 dir="rtl" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">عدم الاعتماد على لسانيات المتون:</span></h4></li></ul><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ومما يزيد من حيرة الدارس وقلة حيلة المدرس هو اعتماد عدد قليل من هذه المناهج على لسانيات المتون، والميل نحو المذهب المعياري كإطار يحدد من خلاله ما يجب وما لا يجب في اللغة العربية وإغفال الاستعمال الحقيقي والمتواضع بين من يتحدثون بها. و مع ندرة مناهج تنطلق من لسانيات المتون فإن المتعلم سيواجه صعوبة في نقل المعارف التي اكتسبها من الصف إلى العالم الحقيقي. ولسانيات المتون هي دراسة اللغة كما هو معبر عنها في مجموعة من المتون اللغوية التي المكتوب منها والمقروء منها. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 17.3333px; white-space: pre-wrap;">(4)</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><ul style="margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 0;"><li dir="rtl" style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; list-style-type: disc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><h4 dir="rtl" role="presentation" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">تعليم الظواهر الصوتية في مناهج تعليم اللغة العربية:</span></h4></li></ul><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">وأيضا من بين التحديات التي تواجه مصممي مناهج تعليم اللغة العربية والباحثين فيها هو موضوع تقعيد ظاهرة النبر في اللغة العربية بما يسمح للناطقين بغيرها بالإتيان بالظواهر فوق الصوتية (suprasegmentals) بوجه سليم فضلا عن الشدة، والنبر الجُملي والجرس وما شاكلها من الظواهر الصوتية. ونظرا لقلة مثل هذه الأبحاث في اللغة العربية فإن العديد من المصممين يغفلون هذا الجانب المهم من تعليمية اللغة العربية وبالتالي يفسحون المجال إما لتعليم اعتباطي لهذا القسم من اللغة أو إغفاله بشكل تام.</span></p><br /><h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt; text-align: right;"><span style="color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">والحـــــــل؟</span></h3><h4 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">التعديل الحازم:</span></h4><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ورد في التقرير العربي الثالث للتنمية الثقافية الصادر عام ٢٠١٠ أنه "لدينا في عالمنا العربي الكثير من فكر التأصيل والتنظير الذي يحتاج بالضرورة إلى فكر الواقع والتفصيل" وعليه فإنه يجب على أي مبادرة إلى تغيير الوضع الراهن أن تكون ممزوجة ببعد عملي يمكن بلوغه بشكل واقعي وفي زمن مدروس وأيضا بأثر يمكن استقرائه بمقارنة الأوضاع السابقة والأوضاع التي تأمل الأطراف الفاعلة الوصول إليها.</span></p><h4 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">التأقلم المبصر:</span></h4><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">أما المتخصصون فالأولى بهم، بل من الضروري عليهم أن يتحروا التراكيب القديمة ويدرسوها دراسة موضوعية بعيدا عن السفسطائية اللغوية، وأن يبحثوا ويمحصوا حقيقتها اللغوية، تعميقا لمعارفهم، وتأصيلا لمحصولهم اللغوي، وفي ذلك تأكيد لمواقعهم العلمية، ووصل للحاضر بالماضي.</span></p><h4 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الإرادة اللغوية الرشيدة:</span></h4><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">إن الإرادة اللغوية هي العنصر الذي يجمع أجزاء السياسة اللغوية ويمكن لها بعيدا عن االحلول المجترة التي لا طائل منها. فعلى سبيل المثال فإن المصطلح الغربي "approach" لم يكن لديه مقابل في اللغة العربية إلى أن اجتهد أهل المغرب العربي واقترحوا مقابلا له وهو "المقاربة"، وظل أهل المشرق يستخدمون مصطلح "منهج" له رغم أن نفس هذه الكلمة تستخدم لمفاهيم أخرى، إلى أن ارتأى أهل المشرق تنظير مصطلح جديد يعنى بهذا المفهوم وهو "المقترب". والسؤال الذي يطرح نفسه الآن هو ما فائدة تنظير مصطلح يحاكي نفس المصطلح الذي نظره المغاربة والذي هو أقرب للمعنى بحكم تمكنهم من اللغات اللاتينية مثل الفرنسية والإسبانية.</span></p><h4 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الدعم السياسي الملموس</span></h4><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">من المعلوم بالعقل بالضرورة أنه لنجاح أي مبادرة لغوية يجب أن يكون هناك حشد وتأييد لدى صناع القرار حتى يضفوا صفة الشرعية لأي مبادرة إصلاح لغوية ومن أجل تعميم أثرها على نطاق أوسع. وهذا من شأنه أن يسهم في تطبيق مخرجات السياسات اللغوية التي يعتمدها أهل القرار من سياسيين ومنظرين لغوين، وأساتذة، وعموم من لديه علاقة بالسياسة اللغوية المنشودة. فغياب هذه الإرادة السياسية يؤدي إلى جعل السياسة اللغوية حبيسة الأوراق. ومما يشاهد الآن هو أن هذه الإرادة والدعم السياسيين قد أثرا بشكل واضح على البلدان العربية، فنجد المجامع اللغوية على كثرتها في العالم العربي مجرد مراكز بحث محضة لا تسمن ولا تغني من جوع لعزلتها أو بالأحرى لعزلها إراديا وجعلها مجرد هيئات شرفية لا غير.</span></p><br /><br /><br /><h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt; text-align: right;"><span style="color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 400; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الخاتمة:</span></h3><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">يعكس واقع اللغة العربية في تركيا انعكاسا للوضعية التي آلت إليها اللغة العربية في عقر دارها، وحجم المشاكل التي تعاني منها في هذه البلدان، وأيضا المحل الإعرابي للأطراف الفاعلة التي تؤثر وتتأثر إيجابا أو سلبا باللغة العربية. وإن لم يدق ناقوس الخطر الذي يحيط باللغة العربية فإن هذه المشاكل سيزداد حجمها وسيكون من الصعب إيجاد حلول رشيدة تسهم في انتشال العربية من حالة الفوضى التي فرضت عليها. وعليه فإنه صار لزاما على الحكومات العربية، والمجامع العربية، والباحثين، والطلبة وحتى عموم الناس أن يكونوا جزءا من الحل لا جزءا من المشكلة التي تواجه العرب ولغتهم.</span></p><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></p><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></p><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></p><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 17.3333px; white-space: pre-wrap;">المراجع:</span></span></p><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: 17.3333px; white-space: pre-wrap;">1 </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left; white-space: pre-wrap;">سورة إبراهيم، الآية 4.</span></p><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left; white-space: pre-wrap;">2- </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left; white-space: pre-wrap;">بتصرف.</span></p><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left; white-space: pre-wrap;">3- </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left; white-space: pre-wrap;">الهوية العربية والأمن اللغوي، عبد الرحمان المسدي.</span></p><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left; white-space: pre-wrap;">4- </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left; white-space: pre-wrap;">يتم تحويل المصادر الصوتية في لسانيات المتون إلى نصوص مترجمة نصا وموصوفة لغويا على حسب المجال الذي تم تحديده من قبل المصمم.</span></p><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt; text-align: left; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></p><p dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></p><div><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div></span>Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0Turkey38.963745 35.24332210.653511163821157 0.08707199999999915 67.273978836178856 70.399572tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-55842146183457167982019-07-15T15:49:00.001+03:002019-07-15T15:49:46.849+03:00Book Review of Analyzing Grammar: an Introduction<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt; text-align: left;">
<span style="color: blue;">Information about the book</span></h2>
<div style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
</div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li><b>AUTHOR</b>: Paul R. Kroeger</li>
<li><b>TITLE</b>: Analyzing Grammar</li>
<li><b>Subtitle</b>: An Introduction </li>
<li><b>PUBLISHER</b>: Cambridge University Press</li>
<li><b>YEAR</b>: 2005</li>
<li><b>Pages</b>: 364</li>
<li><b>REVIEWER</b>: Mehdi ZOUAOUI, English Instructor</li>
</ul>
<br />
<h2 style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt; text-align: left;">
<span style="color: blue;">Summary</span></h2>
<div>
<span style="color: blue;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
The book “Analyzing Grammar: an Introduction” is one of the valuable resources written by Paul R. Kroeger where he delved into dynamics of Grammar. It’s a must-have reference for linguistics majors, young researchers and even fans of the world causality in grammar and why things are the way they are in languages. </div>
<div style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt; text-align: left;">
<span style="color: blue;">Grammatical Form</span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
In the first chapter, the author begins by talking about grammatical forms and their underlying implications on grammar and how this changes from one language to another. For instance, in one of the chinese dialects there is no explicit word that carries the meaning of “hello” but this meaning is rather conveyed in a different way.The author proposes, per se, that describing the grammar of a given language designates the ability of the speaker to tell apart correct forms from incorrect ones. Having said that, we can see that there are some rules that are consciously learned at schools. These rules tell us how the language should be used and are often called “prescriptive rules”.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt; text-align: left;">
<span style="color: blue;">Analyzing Word Structure</span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
In the second chapter, the author voices that the method of recurring partials with constant meaning is fulfilled when:</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
</div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>They can occur in the same environment(s).</li>
<li>They replace one with the other which leads to a difference in meaning. </li>
</ul>
<br />
<div style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
This method is used to recognize contrasting linguistic elements and includes three types:minimal contrast, recurring partials, and pattern-matching.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
In the world of words, morphemes, which are according to Hockett (Hockett,1958) the smallest individually meaningful elements in the utterances of a language, stand out into different forms. Morphemes that are usually added to the root morphemes are called “affixes” which affect this root; however, it is not always easy to predict their meanings or functions. Thus, the author suggests some rules for that purpose: </div>
<div style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
</div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>An affix is always bound, but a root is often free.</li>
<li>A root normally carries lexical meaning,and an affix frequently carries only grammatical meaning.</li>
<li>An affix is always part of a closed class, unlike roots that usually belong to an open class.</li>
</ul>
<br />
<div style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
After that the author focuses on the topic of representing word structure that can be fulfilled by means of position class chart. This tool demonstrates a position in which a certain class of morphemes can occur and it is important to bear in mind that position class charts are a best fit for language where:</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
</div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Each morpheme has a simple linear ordering relationship with all other morphemes in the same word.</li>
<li>Each affix expresses only one grammatical feature or category.</li>
<li>All affixes which express the same grammatical category have the same ordering relationships with all other classes of morphemes.</li>
</ol>
<div>
<i><span style="font-size: x-small;">To read the full article go to <a href="https://www.academia.edu/39824724/Book_Review_of_Analyzing_Grammar_an_Introduction">academia.edu</a></span></i></div>
<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-15095125526328893142019-04-06T10:11:00.001+03:002019-04-06T10:11:17.412+03:00Book Review: Multilingual Higher Education Beyond English Medium Orientations*<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><b>AUTHOR</b>: Christa van der Walt</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><b>TITLE:</b> Multilingual Higher Education</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><b>SUBTITLE:</b> Beyond English Medium Orientations</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><b>SERIES TITLE:</b> Bilingual Education and Bilingualism</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><b>PUBLISHER:</b> Multilingual Matters</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><b>YEAR:</b> 2013</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><b>REVIEWER:</b> Mehdi Zouaoui, Istanbul University</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">SUMMARY</span></span></h3>
<br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">“Multilingual Higher Education” book, as the author has explicitly stated, is designed mainly for university teachers who are teaching in a multilingual environment. It also serves as a guideline that orients language teaching practices in classrooms. The book is divided into five chapters that delve into multilingual matters in a higher education environment. </span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The author starts her first chapter by pointing out fact that linguistic diversity is perceived as a burden rather than an opportunity and also tackles the idea that a ‘balanced bilingualism’ is the ability to use languages equally well in all domains and modes. This phenomenon is prevalent and considered to be the ultimate target for bi-/multilinguals. In this regard, García (2009: 7) emphasises the fact that ‘bilingual education is not simply about one language plus a second language equals two languages’, but that students use a multiplicity of language practices, in different modes, calling on their available languages as well as varieties of languages to manage their learning and achieve their goals. This has urged many European universities to give up the monolingual approach and try to grant some place to other languages in their institutional design, even though monolingual based education is still striving to shut out other literacies in order to encourage the dominant Language of Learning and Teaching (LoLT). Another point that was raised in this chapter is the sociocultural perspective of learning where the author puts forward that language policies are reactionary in nature and they are enacted only when an issue surfaces to the ground, or in other words, they’re problem-driven policies. In addition to the aforementioned points, the author highlights that the attempts to grant education access to a wide audience have apparently diversified the nature of the segments that are meant by “higher education (HE)”. With that in mind, the first four phases which most countries go through are, according to the author, founded in fact on deficit theories: </span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">L2-related handicap: the child does not know enough of the majority language, namely the minority parents. </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Socially conditioned handicap: the parents are working class or in other words, the whole minority group. </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Culturally conditioned handicap: the child’s cultural background is ‘different’</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">L1-related handicap: the child does not know her/his own language and culture properly, and this leaves him without a firm basis for L2-learning, and jeopardizes their self-confidence.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The author then moves to the concept of horizontal mobility (transnational students’ movement) that can be summarized in the following points: </span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">First: HEI’s provide access to students from outside the country to pursue (usually) a postgraduate programme.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Second: transnationally mobile students attempt to access comparable semesters or modules within a particular qualification or a postgraduate qualification that would be compatible with their graduate results at their home institution.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Among the reasons for this transnational mobility are push factors such as limited opportunities in the home country, and from an institutional perspective, the desire to broaden the choice of programmes, and for the students to learn languages. At the supranational level, the drive toward a more internationalized atmosphere has ushered in curriculum change in terms of substitution, assessment and quality assurance.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">In the second chapter, the author gives a diachronic explanation of HE around the world, and highlights the status quo of bi-multilingual HEIs. In the same context, the author asserts that governments are striving to distribute the economic burden of education by means of spreading this load over all possible stakeholders including families and employers. </span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Within this equation, there is a pivotal role of English when it comes to bilingualism and hence we can divide universities into these four categories:</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Hypothetically purely monolingual in teaching and learning practice.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Using language proficiency entrance tests, having academic language support in English.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Having language proficiency entry requirements, academic language support for some students, learning material support in home/community languages, most lecturers know English plus the home language of the majority of students.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Having bi-/multilingual language policies which govern teaching and learning.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">In the same chapter, the author says that there are many factors that can change multilingual higher education in one way or another. To name a few: the history of the region (historical factor), the interpretation of language status within a society and its link with upward mobility (socio-structural factors), the extent to which languages are used in a given community (social psychological factor), the cultural and ideological factors that influence the nature and the purpose of higher education. Undoubtedly, bilingualism is yet to gain its desired state of affairs and this is not likely to solve the persistent problem of the mother-tongue stance toward educational equation. </span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">In the third chapter, the author hypothesizes that learning is a social practice and adds that the learning paradigm is mainly dominated by Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). Actually, there are two prevalent assumptions that shape the design of language courses adopting CLT: </span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">● Language is taught mainly for interpersonal communication where the focus is on oral communication and functional writing.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">● Courses are designed for students who are moving from a L1 to L2 along with its cultural components (monolingual bias).</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">One of the byproducts of CLT is English for Specific Purposes (ESP) where the learner’s needs and the demands of a particular professional linguistic skill are covered. Then, the author moves to the concept of situated learning which is an integral part of generative social practice. Thus, language being an important variable in the academic literacy discourse, language support can be described in several different ways: </span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Scholarship that acts as a kind of apprenticeship under the supervision of a subject matter expert (SME). </span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Scholarship as an orientation towards a community of practice: becoming a professional</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Scholarship to become a reflective practitioner.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Scholarship as ‘third space’: a position where lecturers and students keep a balance between academic requirements and an emerging critical own voice.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">This leads us to the conclusion that, the author claims, mastering the language is likely to correlate with a successful completion of studies.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">In the fourth chapter, the author says that there is a constant pressure on international universities in terms of balancing between the official policy, the local policy, and the enactment of these policies in routine assessments and teaching (Robert, 2008:9). This balance underlies the effort to include students from minority groups who may have studied the same LoLT but may also find it challenging to manage studies at a higher education level. As an example of that, the author mentions post-colonial Africa where English, French, and other colonial languages enjoy high status at HE level, whereas a community language is spoken outside the educational setting with a broad diglossia. In this regard, Setati et al (2002) made a distinction between exploratory talk where a home or community language is mainly used, and discourse-specific-talk which, in their case, needs to be done mainly in English. Students may feel that a particular language is not suitable for academic purposes, either because they feel that their language ability did not ‘develop’ enough for use at HE level or they may feel that using a particular form of the LoLT may stigmatize them.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">In terms of conceptualizing multilingual pedagogy in an HE classroom setting, Baetens Beardsmore (2009: 157) concluded that “we know little about the purely linguistic elements of rate and route of learning two or more languages, depending on phasing and structuring of the curriculum, the effects of transfer”. This calls for skill sets that bilingual educators as well institutions should be equipped with. ‘Language arrangements’ refers to the allocations of languages in various ways, sometimes supported by official institutional, regional and national policies. Language arrangements may lead to several outcomes such as strict separation of languages, which is likely to cause the maintenance of both languages where language acquisition follows an additive bilingual approach (one language is added to the learners’ existing repertoire) rather than a subtractive approach whereby a home or community language is gradually phased out and replaced by dominant LoLTs. Having said that, the author offers many examples of language arrangements of HEI that differ on the basis of time, space, and nature of educational programme. These kinds of arrangements have the potential to create certain dynamics between languages that are being used by both students and lecturers. </span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">According to García (2009: 295) there are two types of approaches used for language arrangements: </span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">● A flexible convergent approach, where code switching is used randomly for affective reasons in which a low-status language is deployed to facilitate the development of literacy in a dominant LoLT. This is often referred as monoliterate bilingualism and it belongs to the register of subtractive bilingualism.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">● A flexible multiplicity approach, where LoLT is used in language practices that support meaning making in more than one language. The author proposes five strategies and practices that can be implemented in multilingual classrooms:</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Instructional code switching: which will be successful in classrooms that are not lecturer-dominated. </span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Co-languaging: which basically means the use of the same material translated in two languages; in fact this falls under the umbrella of translanguaging.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Translanguaging: which underlies the offering of textbooks and articles in more than one language. </span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Preview-view-review: where the content is introduced in one language (preview), then explained in another (view), and finally reinforced in the same language used in the preview phase. </span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Cross-linguistic work and awareness: where a part of the curriculum is kept to be contrasted within the two languages, hence allowing students to translanguage. </span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">In the fifth chapter, the author mainly talks about the dichotomy of tool and identity in language along with the dichotomy of language and content, namely Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). CLIL is based on Marx’s assertion that “ identity is therefore not to be viewed as a fixed or stable characteristic of an individual, but rather as a process of continuous change and permutation which is comprised of cultural identity, social role, and discursive voice’ (Marx, 2002: 266). The author postulates that when we foreground the role of languages as tools to mark the identity of speakers, we can say that language functions as a tool at different levels of connectedness to identities or aspects of identity. The other issue discussed in this chapter is the relationship between language and content in which the author stipulates that this is a result of an effort to support language development in non-credit bearing courses. Thus, the new approach of CLIL was put forward to promote this relationship; it can be thought of as an immersion approach. In addition, the author states that she mainly tackled this topic from a constructivist perspective, where instruction links up with the students’ linguistic abilities rather than expecting the student to meet a reified curriculum. However, such a statement masks a variety of convictions. including the fact that some languages are more suitable than others for HE, that multiple languages cannot be managed in class, and that oral modes are less suitable than written ones just to name a few. </span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">EVALUATION</span></span></h3>
<br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">As the author confessed, she couldn’t do justice to the literature of other languages given the fact that the book is about multilingualism, i.e. different languages may water down the findings of the book to the extent that they make it regional in nature and cannot be cloned to other multilingual settings. The author also seems to disapprove of top-down institutional policies, which should, in my opinion, have their own merits and could effect much improvement if married with efforts of multilingual academics. While the author claims that many European universities are moving away from monolingual education, the dominant language is still English and other languages are being offered merely for promotional purposes and not really to advocate bilingualism since it is not common to find a European university that doesn't have an English programme. Also, as an addendum to the concept provided by the author about horizontal mobility, cultural mobility is an indicator the social status of students where culture is a determining factor for students to take equally but different positions in society or to scale up the societal ladder and take more prestigious social status.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">One interesting point the author touched upon is the concept of English-plus multilingualism with the premise that English is almost taking over. This concept is tied to the linguistic capital notion provided by Pierre Bourdieu (1977) defined as the status where a speaker who enjoys a prestigious upper class accent or dialect will have more credibility and legitimacy over the others. The author also tackled the topic of education as an economic burden that denotes the proportion of education expenditure in total household expenditure and then moved to compliment the Communicative teaching approach even though she was wary about the extent in which CLT is successful due to its assessment practices where discrete-points are being tested. The assumption that lies under CLT, based on the author’s view, may lead to an acculturation of the learner with its two forms: integrative, where the learner develops social contacts while keeping his own culture and style; and assimilative, where the learner moves toward hosting this new culture (Alireza, 2017). In this regard and, as the author already mentioned, an educated native speaker has been primarily considered to represent the desired communicative competence. One of the insightful opinions that the author mentioned is the distinction between exploratory talk and discourse-specific-talk. The former basically reflects the speaker trying out ideas and arranging information into different patterns. Yet, Arocena (2017) proposes a new type, namely presentational talk, which is basically focused around adjusting the language, content, and manner according to the needs of an audience. In the fourth chapter, the author mentions flexible multiplicity approach, in contrast to flexible convergent approach, which may fall short when it comes to quality assurance of bilingual literacy. When the author discussed strategies that can be implemented in a multilingual classrooms, she only mentioned code switching and seems to have bypassed code mixing which is also a prevalent phenomenon that comes along with code switching with a twist in it. In fact and in the African realities, many African countries are by default code mixing communities. Also, code switching in the educational setting can be divided into two categories: instructional code switching (that the author mentioned), and regulative code switching which basically revolves around classroom behavior such as discipline, announcing and even reducing language anxiety for students Arocena (2017).</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">The author seems to have achieved a great deal of what she wanted to achieve with this book through the multifaceted perspective she used to analyze the topic, including economic, historical, political, educational, and linguistic perspectives. For that reason, I think that the book would be useful for researchers of central African multilingualism affairs thanks to the plethora of examples and analyses she provided throughout the book and the ample references and citations she has given. However, perhaps one of the drawbacks of the book is the relatively poor coherence between chapters and in some there is unnecessary digression. Certainly, the field of multilingualism keeps growing with new theories and paradigms. However, the book offers, per se, an account of previous literature and doesn’t really provide new findings but rather reflects on what the literature has already found. One of the strong points the book has is that it offers a full review of literature that can be used to design new research projects.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">REFERENCES</span></span></h3>
<br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Akbar, Farah Sultana. ''The case against Monolingual Bias in Multilingualism.'' (2013): 42-44.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Arocena Egaña, Miren Elisabet. ''Multilingual education: Teachers' beliefs and language use in the classroom.'' (2017).</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Baetens Beardsmore, H. (2009) Bilingual education: Factors and variables. In O. García (ed.) Bilingual Education in the 21st Century (pp. 137–157). Oxford: Blackwell.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Barnes, Douglas. ''Supporting exploratory talk for learning.'' Cycles of meaning: Exploring the potential of talk in learning communities (1993): 17-34.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Bourdieu, Pierre. Language and symbolic power. Harvard University Press, 1991.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">García, O. (2009) Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Lewis, Gwyn, Bryn Jones, and Colin Baker. ''Translanguaging: Developing its conceptualization and contextualization.'' Educational Research and Evaluation 18.7 (2012): 655-670.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Marx, N. (2002) Never Quite a ‘Native Speaker’: Accent and Identity in the L2 and the L1. The Canadian Modem Language Review/La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes, 59 (2), 264–281.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Roberts, C. (2008) Introduction. In H. Haberland, J. Mortensen, A. Fabricius, B. Preisler, K. Risager and S. Kjaerbeck (eds) Higher Education in the Global Village (pp. 7–16). Roskilde: Roskilde University.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Setati, Mamokgethi, et al. ''Incomplete journeys: Code-switching and other language practices in mathematics, science and English language classrooms in South Africa.'' Language and education 16.2 (2002): 128-149.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Shoebottom, P. ''The language learning theories of Professor J. Cummins.'' (2003).</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Zaker, Alireza. ''The Acculturation Model of Second Language Acquisition: Inspecting Weaknesses and Strengths.'' Indonesian EFL Journal 2.2 (2017): 80-87.</span><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">ABOUT THE REVIEWER</span></span></h3>
<br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Mehdi ZOUAOUI is a lecturer at Istanbul University with an interest in general linguistics, education, E-learning, and global affairs. He’s a frequent article writer on E-learning affairs and he’s currently working on a project entitled “MOOC Based Education for Refugees: Conceptual Framework”. He has co-authored two books related to Turkish and Arabic language learning and translated one.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">* <i>First appeared on Linguistlist: </i></span><a href="https://linguistlist.org/issues/30/30-1518.html">https://linguistlist.org/issues/30/30-1518.html</a></div>
Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-379488456244987862018-12-14T19:05:00.001+03:002018-12-14T19:05:36.134+03:00Free Educational Technology Tools: Discussing 3 Musketeers For Your Ninja Students<a href="https://elearningindustry.com/free-educational-technology-tools-discussing-3-musketeers-ninja-students#.XBPUyFhdD_E.blogger">Free Educational Technology Tools: Discussing 3 Musketeers For Your Ninja Students</a>: Check why the Free Educational Technology Tools, Edpuzzle, Badging, And Google Forms can be the 3 musketeers you need to meet your ninja students' needs.Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-47985137006293475102018-01-26T18:51:00.001+03:002018-01-26T18:51:34.823+03:005 Ways To Evaluate And Choose A Suitable Online Education Program<a href="https://elearningindustry.com/evaluate-and-choose-a-suitable-online-education-program-5-ways#.WmtOfuWnHgU.blogger">5 Ways To Evaluate And Choose A Suitable Online Education Program</a>: Wondering how to Evaluate And Choose A Suitable Online Education Program? Check 5 ways to help you Evaluate And Choose A Suitable Online Education Program.Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-77869980951276740792017-12-03T21:57:00.002+03:002017-12-03T21:57:58.645+03:00Review of linguistics ( oxford introductions) <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #2e75b5; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 24pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Linguistics:</span></h2>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 22pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Oxford Introductions to Language Study</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 22pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Review</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">By</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Mehdi Zouaoui</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 30pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><img height="452" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/CQnLg2vsirFXG41dSRuG8JZLeHmZhlPxE4ss68LKduoLdgWPVPBEdN_4x29QKpEJgWxHds3NXKCs9VLx3rspm5fvK-C1n2pcGeJFAtx1QrfKh40zgpK_w-jKCTwswboSmR6D-oGh" style="-webkit-transform: rotate(0.00rad); border: none; transform: rotate(0.00rad);" width="375" /></span></div>
<b id="docs-internal-guid-372d0303-1dbd-288a-0aa5-f7a7963b476f" style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #2e75b5; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></h2>
<h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #2e75b5; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Information about the book</span></h2>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<ul style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">AUTHOR: H.G. Widdowson</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">TITLE: Linguistics</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Subtitle: Oxford Introductions to Language Study.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">PUBLISHER: Oxford University Press</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">YEAR: 1996</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Pages: 134</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">REVIEWER: Mehdi ZOUAOUI, English Instructor, Istanbul University.</span></div>
</li>
</ul>
<h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-top: 18pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 16pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Summary</span></h2>
<h3 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.999999999999998pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Section One: Survey</span></h3>
<h4 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Nature of Language</span></h4>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Widdowson talks in the beginning of his book about the origin of language citing what was mentioned in different philosophical and religious texts. The author begins with the biblical declaration “In the Beginning was the word”, and the Talmud “God created the world by a word, instantaneously, without toil or pains”. He then makes reference Bertrand Russell’s postulation that language is unique to humans, and that :” no matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”. The author posits that if language is defined as “human language” and significance is assigned to particular design features accordingly, it is then bound to be species-specific, by definition</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This uniqueness of language calls for some features that are only inherent to the human language such as: </span></div>
<ul style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Arbitrariness: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Duality: human language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning.</span></div>
</li>
</ul>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Nevertheless, language innateness is not a common sense among linguists and some of them disagree with this hypothesis and even put forward the widely used argument of Washoe and Sarah as evidence of the genetic uniqueness of human language.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<h4 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Scope of Linguistics</span></h4>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">After defining Linguistics, the author moves to the scope of this field and demarcates borders between Linguistics and asks whether its interdisciplinary with other fields is a of unilateral or bilateral nature. According to Widdowson,what is distinctive about Linguistics is that it uses the abstracting potential of language to categorize and explain language itself. In other words, abstraction involves idealization of actual data, as a part of the process of constructing models of linguistic description. Based on that, the purpose of Linguistics is then to provide models of language which reveal features that are not immediately apparent.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The idealization has some dimensions that have to be stated including spoken utterances which are repeated by the same person, though they may seem identical, are never acoustically alike in every particular instance.</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Elaborating on that, according to Ferdinand De Saussure, Linguistics should concern itself with the shared social code, the abstract system, which he called langue, leaving aside the particular actualities of individual utterance, which he called parole and by that the notion of langue renders language as state not a process.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This leads us to the Competence and Performance with the former defined as the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations, and the latter being: their actual behavior. It is important to be aware that there are some differences between langue and competence where langue is perceived by De Saussure as socially shared, while for competence is perceived by Chomsky as genetically blueprinted.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Chomsky, one of the leading scholars of modern Linguistics, considered it as a branch of cognitive psychology and hence he adopts a formalist idealization in that it fixes on the forms of the language as evidence of these universals.</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Chomsky’s ideas were not unanimously welcomed by all scholars where he defines the nature of linguistic knowledge too narrowly to mean a knowledge of grammatical form, and more specifically of syntax.</span></div>
<h4 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Principles and Levels of Analysis</span></h4>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The book then tackles principles and levels of analysis providing some key notions such as types and tokens requiring that this latter can be identified so is to recognize it as actual and particular instance of a general and abstract type. </span></div>
<h5 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 12pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Dimension of analysis</span></h5>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The author posits two variables for sound analysis which are basically: </span></div>
<ul style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Syntagmatic where elements combine with others in a horizontal dimension.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Paradigmatic where elements have the same potential for appearance in the same environment.</span></div>
</li>
</ul>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Added to that, there are different levels of these analyses that are basically: </span></div>
<ul style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Graphological element</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Morphological</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Syntactic</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Textual</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Pragmatic</span></div>
</li>
</ul>
<h4 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Areas of Enquiry: Focus on Form</span></h4>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The book moves then to another topic concerned with areas Linguistics, namely, the areas of enquiry of Linguistics with the first part related to the form of the language. </span></div>
<h5 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 12pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The patterns of sound: Phonetics and Phonology</span></h5>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">One of the most important things is the notion of “sound” with the twists it underlie. It is important, in this regard, to highlight some notions her</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br class="kix-line-break" /></span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">e that are inherent to that area. First is Phonetics which studies allophonic manifestations, and how sounds of speech are actually made. Whereas the study of phonemes and their relations in sound systems is the business of phonology.</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This field also studies stress, which is a feature of speech that goes beyond the individual sound segments and operates suprasegmetally over utterances. </span></div>
<h5 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 12pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Construction of words: morphology</span></h5>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Another area of enquiry is words and what relates to them. The field that investigates this is called Morphology and here are some highlights of what this field digs at: </span></div>
<h6 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 12pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Derivation and inflection</span></h6>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Derivation has to do with the way morphemes get attached as affixes to existing lexical forms or stems in the process of word formation. As for Inflectional morphology, it does not create new words but adapts existing ones so they operate effectively in sentences. It is not a process of lexical innovation but of grammatical adaptation. </span></div>
<h5 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 12pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Combination of words: syntax</span></h5>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The other area of investigation is how words are brought together to make valid patterns. This has also to do with grammatical systems that vary from a language to another. In other words, it deals with the ways words are combined in sentences.</span></div>
<h4 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Areas of Enquiry: Focus on Meaning</span></h4>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The other area of investigation is the study of how meaning is encoded in a language, namely semantics. </span></div>
<h5 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 12pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The meaning of words</span></h5>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">It is necessary here to mention that each morpheme has a semantic element and most of the times semantic an equivalent. Sometimes the distinctive meaning of the lexical host disappears and blends with the affix in the historical process of etymological change. We can also establish minimal pairs of lexical items with respect to their semantic components. This approach is known as componential analysis that provides an inventory of the semantic features encoded in lexical forms. Students of linguistics should remember that Lexical items can come as larger clusters of words and this has to be known as formulaic phrases, that is, complete units of meanings equivalent to single words. </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the same arena, what people mean by the language they use, how they actualize its meaning potential as a communicative resource is termed as pragmatics. This also brings us to the notion of reference, force, and effect. </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">A reference is when a constituent takes on a “pointing” or “indexical” function. Also, speech acts are widely studied in that field which are mainly concerned with relationships, not those internal to the language itself, but those between aspects of the language and aspects of the external circumstances in which it is used in a particular occasion.</span></div>
<h4 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Current Issues</span></h4>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In this part, the book takes a glance at current issues being studied and here the author reminds us at the same time that Linguistics, like language itself, is dynamic and therefore subject to change. Linguistics, the author reaffirms, should continually question established ideas and quest for new insights.</span></div>
<h5 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 12pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The scope of linguistics</span></h5>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The rationale behind the idealization of language to abstract is for practical feasibility and theoretical validity and this is what urged Chomsky to come up with competence-performance dichotomy. In other words, this is the formalist approach that was criticized by the functionalist approach that came as an antagonist of the formalist approach. Functionalist approach posits that the formalist approach diminishes the study of language to abstract forms eliminating many significant elements. </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">By that, functional linguistics is about how language code has developed in response to the uses to which it is put. More specifically, it is the study how the formal properties of the language informed the functions it serves, how it encodes perceptions of reality, way of thinking, cultural values, and so on.</span></div>
<h5 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 12pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #666666; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Data of Linguistics</span></h5>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">One of the most vital components for Linguistics the book touched on is the source of data in Linguistics that are divided into three types: </span></div>
<ul style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Introspection: appealing to our competence.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Elicitation: using other members of the community as informants.</span></div>
</li>
</ul>
<ul style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Observation: where corpus linguistics occurs.</span></div>
</li>
</ul>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">It is important to notice that in introspection and elicitation the data are abstract knowledge and not actual behavior. Depending on the kind of evidence being under investigation, the type of data can be selected. If the internal relationship between language and the mind is being investigated, intuition and elicitation are preferred. If the evidence is related to external links with society, then the observed data of actual occurrence is preferred. </span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The second section offered varied readings related to the previous chapter of various school thoughts and opinions of Linguistics scholars. This was done by means of providing two different opinions, then a series of follow-up questions are added to trigger thinking outside the box of the book. </span></div>
<h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-top: 18pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 16pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Evaluation</span></h2>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The book of “Linguistics” is written by H.D. Widdowson (B.1935), one of the pioneer scholars in language teaching and learning methodologies. His main field is applied linguistics and what relates to it. The book is mainly designed for people who don’t have previous knowledge of linguistics and those who want to know what this field is about. The book is divided into sections that are meant to be kickstarters for people who are not familiar with the field of Linguistics. With this target audience, the author has achieved great deal of his objectives by conveying the meaning of linguistics to the laymen and its probable applications in other related fields such as computational linguistics, sociology, etc. Having said that, the book may not be as useful as it is expected for those who have already benefited from an introductory course in linguistics even though the book has some gems scattered around and may serve as a reminder for Linguistics majors. In addition to that, the book mentioned some elements that may not serve the purpose of presenting and representing linguistics to those who don’t know it such as mentioning the different opinions about the formalist approach, represented by Noam Chomsky and the functionalist approach represented by Halliday. It is certain that Professor Widdowson has spent years in the field of language and linguistics and maybe he saw a need to promote that field, perceived by some, if not many, as a dismal science that it says more than it can actually do or contribute to the scientific community. The author of the book may be considered to have a vocation that disapproves the Chomskyan model of language through the antitheses he has presented throughout the book especially in the section of special issues. The book offers few questions to be answered or investigated by the linguistic community and rather highlights some never agreed upon issues such as the innateness of language and so on. This may rhyme with the purpose and the target audience addressed.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<h3 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #434343; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.999999999999998pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">About the reviewer</span></h3>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Mehdi is an English instructor and education consultant with insightful knowledge of alternative teaching methods combining both policy and hands-on experience of the field. He has been advising and delivering key knowledge in several fields related to higher education in the Arab world such as cooperation for curriculum building between Turkish and Palestinian universities, design of study tour for officials of Saudi Arabia and Morocco on Turkey higher education best practices. He considers his formal education expertise very much complementary with his insights in non-formal education and alternative learning methods. He is a Google Certified Educator Level 1 and member of some journals.</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Mehdi holds a bachelor’s degree in Teaching English as a Foreign Language from the University of Hassiba Ben Bouali, Chlef (Algeria). He is currently residing in Istanbul/Turkey.</span></div>
<br /><br /></div>
Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-969228097499227582017-09-27T19:40:00.001+03:002017-09-27T19:40:29.782+03:00Consumer Decision Journey For Learners: Chapter Two<a href="https://elearningindustry.com/consumer-decision-journey-for-learners-chapter-two#.WcvUdHzJMZ8.blogger">Consumer Decision Journey For Learners: Chapter Two</a>: Want to know about the Consumer Decision Journey For Learners? Check the second part of this two-part articles series about the learner's decision journey.Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-28840759241476236312017-05-24T21:50:00.000+03:002017-05-24T21:50:20.803+03:00Learner Decision Journey: Chapter One<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<a href="https://elearningindustry.com/learner-decision-journey-chapter-one#.WSXTpZ9gacM.blogger">Learner Decision Journey: Chapter One</a>: Want to know about Learner Decision Journeys? Check what is the connection between a Learner Decision Journey (LDJ) and a consumer decision journey (CDJ).</div>
Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-73035625779859792642017-04-01T16:35:00.001+03:002017-04-01T16:35:15.266+03:005 Technology Integration Plan Steps You Can Tell Your Principal About<a href="https://elearningindustry.com/5-technology-integration-plan-steps-can-tell-principal#.WN-sjVI2Yic.blogger">5 Technology Integration Plan Steps You Can Tell Your Principal About</a>: Want to know the Technology Integration Plan steps you need to tell your Principal about? Check 5 Technology Integration Plan steps to take.Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-28083813360980191142016-12-31T14:01:00.000+03:002016-12-31T14:03:24.554+03:00Résumé du Livre de Problèmes Des Idées Dans Le Monde Musulman<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h1 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 12pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #2e75b5; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 21.333333333333332px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Informations à Propos du Livre:</span></h1>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">AUTEUR: MALEK BENNABI </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">TITRE: Le Problème des Idées dans le Monde Musulman</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">EDITEUR: EL BAY’YINATE</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Année: 1990</span></div>
<span id="docs-internal-guid-31f76d67-5487-de09-2664-327bd5fce573"><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.6667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">REVIEWER: Mehdi ZOUAOUI, Consultant de l'Éducation.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.6667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.6667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span>
<br />
<h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #2e75b5; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 21.333333333333332px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Evaluation</span></h2>
<b id="docs-internal-guid-0cf63f9c-5488-e1b9-ce04-3249968a63e0" style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Accusé par quelques-uns de souffrir d’une schizophrénie culturelle</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, Malek Bennabi a essayé de nous transmettre l’idée que c’est le problème de l’incohérence qui a créé le chaos lorsqu’on a discuté la faisabilité de sortir La France de l’Algérie. La réalité est que ce penseur algérien s’était inspiré d’un plasma de deux cultures distinctes se trouvant dans un pays qui s’efforce d’avoir son indépendance. C’est la culture arabo-musulmane qui avait formé en lui l’esprit du patriotisme, et la culture française duquel a bénéficié de l’esprit de la contemporanéité</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Cette influence ne veut pas dire qu’il considère comme acquis les idées de ces contemporains comme Al-Afghani et Abduh pour laquelle il voyait leurs efforts de réforme basés sur des fondations plutôt apologétiques qui donnent seulement aux musulmans un outil d’autoprotection et d’auto-conviction mais ils ne fournissent pas un système de pensée fiable et capable à d’affronter les nouveaux challenges intellectuels. Parmi ces challenges, sa célèbre distinction qu’il a fait entre le colonialisme et la colonisabilité. La colonisabilité est, en effet, un ensemble des caractéristiques psychologiques et sociologiques qui dominent dans une société et qui évoluent dans l’apathie et le piétinement, la perte de l’énergie et l’effort créateur</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.Dans le même contexte, la philosophe Margaret Kohn considère le colonialisme comme étant le mouvement qui visait à modifier les conditions des sociétés musulmanes, politiques, culturelles, sociales et économiques par l'occupation et la colonisation des esprits et des cœurs et par conséquent à changer les idées. Certainement, la colonisation n’est qu’un effet d’une cause qui se nomme ‘la colonisabilité’ qui est en d’autres termes, une défaite psychologique voulue durable et exercée par un colonisateur envers un colonisé et cet exercice a le but de rendre le colonisé un esclave sans velléité n’ayant pas d’estime de soi. L’origine de ce caractère de la colonisabilité se résume selon Malek Bennabi dans ces trois points</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">:</span></div>
<ul style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Nous ne pouvons rien faire parce que nous sommes ignorants et cette colonisation n’est qu’une fatalité née avec nous qu’on ne peut pas éviter.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Nous ne pouvons rien faire parce que nous sommes pauvres.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Nous ne pouvons pas déclencher un changement car il y a une colonisation au-dessus de nos têtes.</span></div>
</li>
</ul>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Malek Bennabi pose une question vitale à l’égard de ce qui peut incarner des idées sans danger pour une société et aussi comment se débarrasser des idées et des réalités qui ont touché les communautés. Naguère, c’était, per se, la révolution contre des occupants qui voulaient coloniser la citadelle avec leurs idées, mais maintenant la bataille est à l’intérieur entre ceux qui veulent la défendre et ceux qui veulent la livrer aux idées étrangères.</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Malek Bennabi a adopté la définition d’Edouard Herriot qui dit que “la culture c’est ce qui reste lorsqu’on a tout oublié’’</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Cette définition est en réalité un essai d’aboutir à une définition plus concrète qu’abstraite. Dans le même sens, on remarque que les cultures orientales se sont basées sur l’éthique, et les cultures occidentales se sont basées sur l’esthétique. Thomas Stearns Elliott (1888-1965 É.C.) définit la culture comme un style de vie d’un peuple qui vit au même endroit où elle apparaît à travers les arts, le système social, les habitudes, les coutumes et la religion de ce peuple.</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> L’auteur a aussi parlé du l’éducation qui fait partie des problèmes persistants dans le monde musulman. La pensée de Malek à ce sujet est fondée sur quatre piliers :</span></div>
<ul style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">La religion étant un phénomène universel.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">L’islam étant le cadre principal de repère.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">La nature civilisationnelle du problème du monde musulman.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Le facteur humain en étant l’élément principal du problème.</span></div>
</li>
</ul>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Le lecteur pourrait trouver l’écriture de Malek Bennabi un peu désorganisée ou incompréhensible à cause des maximes que l’auteur considère connus par le lecteur. Je pense que l’auteur a pu transférer son inquiétude des idées islamiques qui ont été soit envahies soit trahies. Le livre est préconisé pour les étudiants de la philosophie islamique et aussi pour les étudiants qui sont intéressés par l’histoire alternative de l’Algérie et ainsi pour ceux qui vivent à l’étranger et se préoccupent des fuites historiques de l’histoire que l’on n’a pas racontées. Il donne un point de vue très intéressant à propos de la notion de la colonisabilité et l’adaptation de l’islam et ça pertinence pour les idées contemporaines. Le livre nous défie avec des questions vitales sur le futur de l’islam dans la lumière du statu quo du monde musulman y compris les pays arabes. Malek Bennabi a réitéré des idées similaires dans ses autres œuvres en particulier la notion de la civilisation dont il était convaincu qu’elle se compose de trois éléments inaliénables formant un triptyque de : l’homme, le sol et le temps. Il y avait aussi d’autres penseurs qui ont donné des définitions différentes de la civilisation comme Ibn Khaldoun. Selon Ibn Khaldoun la civilisation est plus ou moins basée sur la prospérité matérielle. A cet égard, Il dit que la civilisation, appelée aussi civilisation humaine ‘</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">al-oumrane al-becheri’</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, est la dextérité dans le luxe…. comme les métiers destinés pour la cuisine, les vêtements,...’’</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Quant à Saïd Qutb, il relie la civilisation à la notion dogmatique de la gouvernance divine qui doit être exclusivement provenu du Dieu</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Malek postule que les sociétés pendant le processus de civilisation passent par trois phases comme nous l’avons déjà mentionné : phase de l’esprit, phase de raison, et phase de l’instinct. Il conclut que toute civilisation doit se poser dans l’un de ces trois stades. Malek est donc considéré parmi les premiers qui ont essayé de donner une définition interdisciplinaire de la notion de civilisation contrairement aux définitions traditionnelles qui ont traité la civilisation d’une fenêtre mono disciplinaire exiguë.</span></div>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Brièvement, Malek Bennabi a essayé de finir le complexe psycho-existentialiste de l’homme de l’ère post-almohade en donnant et concevant une nouvelle équation de la civilisation et aussi en analysant la différence délicate entre un colonisé et un colonisable. </span><br />
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px;">
Vous pouvez télécharger le résumé depuis:</div>
<span style="color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.6667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span><br />
<div style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px; margin-top: 6px;">
- Ma page Academia: <a href="https://goo.gl/w07aAF" rel="nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">https://goo.gl/w07aAF</a><br />- Google Drive: <a href="http://goo.gl/EFHBoQ" rel="nofollow" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank">http://goo.gl/EFHBoQ</a></div>
</div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.6667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div>
Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-25184268474333546102016-12-12T03:32:00.001+03:002016-12-12T03:32:35.083+03:004 Principles, 4 Structures, And 8 Magic Tips For Educational Blogging<a href="https://elearningindustry.com/4-principles-4-structures-8-tips-educational-blogging#.WE3wGv-HGWs.blogger">4 Principles, 4 Structures, And 8 Magic Tips For Educational Blogging</a>: Want to know the road to successful Educational Blogging? Check 4 principles, 4 structures, and 8 magic tips for Educational Blogging.Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-13217152259216251002016-12-08T15:10:00.000+03:002016-12-08T15:10:21.886+03:00Review of Writing Effective Public Policy Papers Handbook<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-zRa88vowA9M/WElLt3cMiiI/AAAAAAAAIw8/ENZ9M8B8GVIgkAzl3i_-SwgudWlf733SgCLcB/s1600/urban-fellow-papers.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="169" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-zRa88vowA9M/WElLt3cMiiI/AAAAAAAAIw8/ENZ9M8B8GVIgkAzl3i_-SwgudWlf733SgCLcB/s320/urban-fellow-papers.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Source:http://law.gsu.edu/files/2013/11/urban-fellow-papers.png</span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></div>
<h2 style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt; text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #2e75b5; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17.333333333333332px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Information about the book</span></h2>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">AUTHOR: Eóin Young and Lisa Quinn</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">TITLE: Writing Effective Public Policy Papers.</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">SUBTITLE: A Guide for Policy Advisers in Central and Eastern Europe.</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">PUBLISHER: Local Government and Public Service Reform Initiative.</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">YEAR: 2002</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Pages: 113 P</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span id="docs-internal-guid-6bdddd21-de51-a147-137d-98ad7661bf57"><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.6667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">REVIEWER: Mehdi ZOUAOUI, Education Consultant and Strategist</span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.6667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div>
<h2 style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
<span style="color: #2e75b5; font-family: Calibri;"><span style="font-size: 17.3333px; white-space: pre-wrap;">Summary: </span></span></h2>
<div>
<span style="color: #2e75b5; font-family: Calibri;"><span style="font-size: 17.3333px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="font-size: 17.3333px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><i>You can download the summary and review <a href="https://www.academia.edu/30263218/Review_of_Writing_Effective_Policy_Papers_Guide" target="_blank">here</a></i></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.6667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div>
<h2 style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
<span style="color: #2e75b5; font-family: Calibri;"><span style="font-size: 17.3333px; white-space: pre-wrap;">Evaluation</span></span></h2>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.6667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The authors of the guide laid a foundational background for people who aspire to write policies in a more logical way</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13.333333333333332px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The book is beneficial to junior consultants in the ascendancy of their career, students who are majoring in Public Administration and Public Policy as well as adventurers of international organizations and projects. It is also useful for professional consultants who are missing some gaps in writing policy papers. The book contains ample practical advices and outlines for writing policy papers including the soup and nuts. However, the handbook would have been more beneficial if it broke down these steps into manageable chunks for the sake of beginners through tutorials or activities that serve as a scaffolding support for them to practice the knowledge they gain. Having said that, the book implicitly implies the grasp of some previous knowledge in writing in general, and public policy in particular. What is worth noticing is that the authors always include a checklist by the end of each section that serves as reminder and take-away points.</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Certainly, the world of academia is full of books and guidelines that were written in the field of policy making and writing such as: Writing White Paper: How to Capture Readers and Keep Them Engaged by Michael Stelzner(2007), and the newly published work entitled “Writing Public Policy: A Practical Guide to Communicating in the Policy-Making Process” by Catherine F. Smith (2015), “A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem Solving” by Eugene Bardach(2011), and many others. However, the present handbook unique feature is its practical aspect which makes it a good companion in writing policy paper.</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Policy writing is one of the pillars for governmental affairs and therefore it should be characterized by a more pragmatic analysis that helps increase the rank of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Development_Index" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Human Development Index</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> (HDI) in countries. While trying to convince the audience of that the policy is important , it is also important to mention that policy documents are not meant to be marketing papers or creative writing but their primary goal is to inform, enlighten, guide and not mere academic works even though it is tempting to lean towards one of the two paths: either professional or academic. Thus, keeping convenient distance between the two realms is always a welcome prospect, else the policy risks to be only a theoretical piece that lacks practical applicability or a professional policy that is not based on valid scientific background. </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">As it is the case for other disciplines, the field of policy writing contains many other terms and genres of writing that may look alike. In that context, the authors opted not to highlight the differences and analogies between these terms such as white paper, green paper that are mainly used in EU and United Kingdom.For example, the difference between a policy paper and a public policy paper is not explicitly demonstrated since the former may take several formulas such as policy briefs, white papers, and so on. In fact, the core feature that separates a public policy paper from the rest of policies is that it carries governmental authoritativeness that gives it the power of abiding by all the stakeholders it covers. </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Green papers are written early in the process of policy formulation for general public and stakeholders to identify potential solutions, whereas white papers are written at a later stage to summarise and communicate proposed policy solutions to the general public and relevant stakeholders.</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Position papers generally express the position taken by an organization in a specified policy area in an attempt to influence policy makers to adopt a stance that the organization is taking. Also, the word policy alone in its corporate environment means “predetermined course of action established as a guide toward accepted objectives and strategies of the organization”</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The book did not mention the documents required for pre-policy stage, in-policy-stage, and post-policy stage to ease the process of writing policy paper for the involved writing team. The main documents for these stages are represented in the following chart:</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><img height="163" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/wLbDpQU_ISg8e7xYIQPd9-VjnxYtNXG2dyH9opF5IoC2I8Lc4ObuDk9CxvDEB-twHHz8hjBeq_4Ch9xh-tEEY3hxq-6xkg-ecJ6wwWR_2CDXvL_IUylH53vQa2lCR6m_TOzuOqfb" style="-webkit-transform: rotate(0.00rad); border: none; transform: rotate(0.00rad);" width="588" /></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.333333333333332px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Figure 03: Documents needed for pre-policy, in-policy, and post-policy writing</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Reflecting on the alternatives that are going to be chosen, it is necessary that they have to be prioritized by rank and merged together whenever possible in order to make it easy to sacrifice some designed goals or values when the situation dictates to do so. This also should be accompanied by virtual scenarios for each alternative to gauge its strengths and weaknesses</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> where the efficiency and effectiveness; reliability and validity of alternatives can be analyzed through SWOT and PEST methods.</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">As for monitoring, there are also other tools to ensure a smooth flow of the public policy such as: control, auditing, and assessment. Controlling entails the conformity of the policy paper with the rules of law, standards, and so on, while auditing is the process of trying to improve the public action by measuring the obtained state of affairs with the desired state of affairs. There is a common trend that some people and officials perceive assessment as an attempt to find the scapegoat to put blame on in a policy; however, assessment rather aims to uncover how a given action can be carried out more effectively and efficiently. </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">There are some other techniques that allow to make more objective evaluation avoiding any confounding variables that may alter the obtained outcomes such as difference of the difference that consists of studying the state of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries before and after the reform; and the difference of the state of beneficiaries before and after the reform. </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">It is also important to involve citizens before, during and after evaluation so as to gain more insights and benefit and reach more visibility of the policy under study or analysis. The diagram below summarizes this point</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">: </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><img alt="Review of Writing Effective Policy Papers Google Docs.png" height="380" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/qh3vuXVnl_X21Wm221yA2OK9uOaw_ejAdyDTe553gH3nx_cAuw3_NlPV06tAiMz3zA1C23s4ctPKRvI5KQM8Cno2xi76J74NxBBIl2FP1jZOomL8PZ4D2KQO_6-whywLHHhxBJTW" style="-webkit-transform: rotate(0.00rad); border: none; transform: rotate(0.00rad);" width="535" /></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.333333333333332px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Figure 03: Involving citizens in evaluation</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Certainly, evaluating a public policy is a cumbersome step institutionally or technically due to the many caveats that a policy maker may fall in such as mixing a correlation with a causality</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> or falling into the logical fallacy of</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_hoc_ergo_propter_hoc" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">post hoc ergo propter hoc</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">by mixing a cause with an effec. Added to that, the problem of incidence where the expected beneficiary of the policy may not be the one reached in the policy and a totally different beneficiary may be affected. The multiplicity of effects may also result in a more complex and hard evaluation, and making the policy more concrete and applied is pitfall policymakers should be aware of because of the fact that if the policy cannot be implemented in the real world, there is no benefit designing it.</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Also, in order to gauge the worthiness of a given public policy, it should be compared with other public policies even if they are different so as to predict what may go wrong and what needs to be changed, adapted, or even left out. This can be done by converting benefits and qualitative variables into metrics that can be quantitatively measured. </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Also, it is crucial that evaluators are independent and use reliable and valid methods in order to avoid any possible bias. This can also be corroborated by creating an interdisciplinary group of evaluators that consist at least of these stakeholders: governmental coordinators such as court of audits, parliament, etc; related administration under question, and independent evaluators.</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Council of Economic Analysis postulates that in order for an evaluation to be successful and credible it has to have at least the three following elements: access to data, expertise time, and dissemination of the results</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Analyzing an existing policy is no easy process and involves different methods and dynamics to understand the macro-image of the policy. A more simplified way to keep in mind while analyzing the problem is to use the Tree Problem demonstrated in the graph proposed by Mahabat Baimyrzaeva</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">: </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><img height="314" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/ZycxQaBCIlM5A0BmzSW5ZuVLL_DkyuC5dw0FlX-kVXdw_D7g00SLh0Y2U8wmlGzn8WH4iH27wCYSwjdCS0LMvEOu-E2ybXT8BFbuWeb14UVXT_57baxbvuSH4LwpAlMSH6Jb78Za" style="-webkit-transform: rotate(0.00rad); border: none; transform: rotate(0.00rad);" width="624" /></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.333333333333332px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Figure 04: Tree Problem solving</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Along with the definitions chosen in this book a public policy can also be defined as “a strategic action carried out by a public authority in order to mitigate or advocate a given phenomenon happening in society”</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. This will allow the analysis of a public policy in the light of six dimensions: </span></div>
<ol style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Effects: which covers three elements:</span></div>
</li>
<ol style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Efficiency: </span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Effects non investigated yet:</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Equity:</span></div>
</li>
</ol>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Application that includes:</span></div>
</li>
<ol style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Costs:</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Feasibility:</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Acceptability:</span></div>
</li>
</ol>
</ol>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Besides the classification of policy provided in the book that is notional, There are other classifications policies different than the one mentioned in the book. Anderson(2003) classifies them according to the following logic</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">:</span></div>
<ul style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Substantive policies: which involves what the government is going to do.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Procedural policies: which involves how the government is going to do it.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Distributive policies: which involves an allocation of benefits or services to particular segment of the population.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Regulatory policies: which introduces restrictions or limitations </span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Self-regulatory policies: are similar to the regulatory policies except that they are controlled by the regulated group.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Redistributive policies: which involves a deliberate effort by the government to shift the benefits among broad classes.</span></div>
</li>
</ul>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">From a conceptual side, the philosophy of public policies can be approached in the light of the following political theories: </span></div>
<ol style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Political system theory: a political system arising in response of demand.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Group theory: where public policy is considered to be the product of the group in the struggle.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Elite theory: where public policy reflects the values and preferences of the governing elite.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Institutionalism: where public policy is carried out, implemented and designed by institutions.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Rational Choice Theory: where the principles of microeconomics are applied in the analysis of public policy.</span></div>
</li>
</ol>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">If we go back to description of the problem and In addition of the four foundational elements stated in the book, we can approach the components of the f problem as follows:</span></div>
<ul style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; margin-left: 48px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Level of urgency and whether this needs an immediate intervention or not.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; margin-left: 48px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Level of severity: by looking at the potential damage the issue under question can harm and the rate of people who could be affected.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; margin-left: 48px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Duration of the problem: whether it happens once or it is recurring.</span></div>
</li>
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; margin-left: 48px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Authors of the problem and how to eliminate these resources or cut them down.</span></div>
</li>
</ul>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This diagram summarizes these core elements: </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><img height="232" src="https://docs.google.com/drawings/d/sj8-nO_w2FIosBEhLoS1gxA/image?w=624&h=232&rev=170&ac=1" style="-webkit-transform: rotate(0.00rad); border: none; transform: rotate(0.00rad);" width="624" /></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 13.333333333333332px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Figure 05: Foundational Elements of the Problem</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Paggiolo summarizes a problem as “ a perception by the actors of a gap of what is (assessment), of what should be (duty to act), and what can be ( possibility of action)”</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">As mentioned before, it is always a good practice to strive on combining the different alternatives to build a more comprehensive scope that would cover as much as possible issues.</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Moreover, one of the caveats that policy maker should avoid is to provide generic recommendations that veer away from the efficiency of policy that is meant to be applied rather theoretical. This goes also for the use of unnecessary wording in policy papers because they are meant to be applied and understood by the average person especially when it comes to client-oriented policy analysis since how much the policymaker knows about the issue is not as important as what the related stakeholders should do. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span id="docs-internal-guid-6bdddd21-de52-8e32-645b-96ba073eb39a"></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Finally, the public policy and evaluations have to be published without any censorship even if the results reached may not please or serve the interests of some stakeholders because more is always needed; not more contemplating but more </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">action </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">thinking.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.6667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.6667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</div>
Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-85137662497801677172016-11-22T18:30:00.003+03:002016-11-22T18:30:39.803+03:00 Introducing English Linguistics Review<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #2e75b5; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17.333333333333332px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-gz_5x3GFQHA/WDRje-ii37I/AAAAAAAAIuY/7SXsBwSOwusiMgin8R3S1GfpoXicPyuoQCLcB/s1600/Introducing%2BEnglish%2BLinguistics.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-gz_5x3GFQHA/WDRje-ii37I/AAAAAAAAIuY/7SXsBwSOwusiMgin8R3S1GfpoXicPyuoQCLcB/s320/Introducing%2BEnglish%2BLinguistics.jpg" width="223" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">Book Cover</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div dir="ltr" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; white-space: normal;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.6667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></div>
</span></h2>
<h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #2e75b5; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17.333333333333332px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></h2>
<h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #2e75b5; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17.333333333333332px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Information about the book</span></h2>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">AUTHOR: </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.6667px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="http://www.cs.umb.edu/~meyer/" style="text-decoration: none;">Charles F. Meyer</a></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.6667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Email: </span><a href="mailto:meyer@cs.umb.edu" style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.6667px; text-decoration: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-size: 14.6667px; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">meyer@cs.umb.edu</span></a></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">TITLE: Introducing English Linguistics</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">SERIES: Cambridge Introductions to Language and Linguistics</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">PUBLISHER: Cambridge University Press</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">YEAR: 2009</span></div>
<span id="docs-internal-guid-686fc2b5-8c9f-d44d-f2ca-12c2da3f9c91"></span><br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Pages: 271 page</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div>
<h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #2e75b5; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 17.333333333333332px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Evaluation</span></h2>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 13.333333333333332px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Charles F. Meyers is a professor at Massachusetts University where he teaches Linguistics to students aspiring to teach English as a second language. The book is designed for first year students, per se, so as to give them a strong introductory about Linguistics and therefore serves as a guideline for them and also as a course book for teachers. For beginners, it is a perfect first to-start-with with the author aiming to convey most of the basic notions related to Linguistics that students need to know. The book is also designed as self-study work with the activities that are introduced by the end of each chapter. These activities are instrumental for students to check their understanding and grasp of the topic. The book even goes further by offering further reading at the end of each chapter for those who want to go deeper and find more information; however, I think that the author digressed in offering these suggested extensive reading which will likely to leave the reader, especially the beginner, perplexed on what reading needs more attention. It would have been better if the author has provided some required reading at the beginning including articles, online videos, etc to increase the chance of reading them by students. Having said that, the book won’t be too much beneficial for students who are already familiar with basic terms of Linguistics and they may find the book a bit simplistic in its structure except for some of the activities that they may enjoy while practicing their knowledge. </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 13.333333333333332px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 13.333333333333332px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The book is organized in top-bottom approach by going from the largest unit of language to the smallest units one. In other words, the book started by giving an overview of the history and development of English, then moved the social context which is more or less related to Pragmatics, then moved to the topic of text in English. After that, the book delved into the syntax of English, and he went down the road to the words by looking at them with the lenses of morphology and ended it by looking at the smallest sound unit in the language, namely phoneme. </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 13.333333333333332px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The book is not intended to raise questions that are discussed in the realm of Linguistics but only gives an account of what was or is being said in Linguistics and therefore, it is hardly to describe it as an attempt to ask new questions be it theoretically or empirically. </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<b><i>To download the full summary you can visit my <a href="https://www.academia.edu/30024622/Introducing_English_Linguistics_Summary_and_Review" target="_blank">Academia page here</a></i></b></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<b><br /></b></div>
<h2 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 2pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #2e75b5; font-family: Calibri; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">About the Reviewer:</span></span></h2>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-9966ef78-8ca1-a77f-73a8-57706b75259e"></span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Calibri; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-variant-ligatures: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Mehdi ZOUAOUI is an Education and E-learning Consultant with an ELT background and passion for Linguistics as well as Literature. He’s an evangelist for Non Formal Education and alternative approaches to schooling and deschooling. He has completed more than 40 Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC) from prestigious universities and the counter is still going on. He has co-authored two books related to Turkish and Arabic language learning. </span></span></div>
</div>
Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-15541443100896046122016-11-09T10:38:00.000+03:002016-11-09T10:56:20.846+03:00 واهزز نفوس الجامدين<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h1 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 24pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 32px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ربما حيي الخشب</span></h1>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 32px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 18.6667px;">ملخص كتاب "طبائع الاستبداد ومصارع الاستعباد" لعبد الرحمان الكواكبي</span></span></div>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<br /></div>
<h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 18.666666666666664px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">نبذة عن الكتاب:</span></h3>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">يعد كتاب "طبائع الاستبداد ومصارع الاستعباد" لمؤلفه عبد الرحمان الكواكبي، المفكر الإسلامي المشهور والذي عاش خلال القرن العشرين، من بين الكتب التي لا تزال قائمة وصالحة لكثير من معطيات الوقت الحالي، إذ إنه يتحدث عن ظاهرة ما تزال الأمة العربية ترزح تحت أغلالها والتي تتجلى بوضوح في الكثير من الحكام المستبدين الذين أهدروا مقومات شعوبهم وأوطانهم وحولوها إلى ركام إنساني لا يأتمر إلا بما يراه الحاكم صائبا ولايرى إلا بعين هذا الحاكم، لاغين بذلك ذواتهم، وطموحاتهم وآرائهم جملة وتفصيلا إلا ما وافق هوى الطبقة الحاكمة... وتستمر حكاية المستبد والأسير إلى أن يرث الله الأرض ومن عليها. كان قد عرض علينا مقتطف من كتاب "الطبائع" ونحن طلاب في الثانوية بشعبة الآداب، وكغيرنا من الطلاب، كنا نمر على المعاني التي كان يحويها هذا المقتطف مرور اللغويين لا مرور أهل البحث والتمحيص، وماكان هذا إلا تمثيل وتصوير جلي لمظاهر الاستبداد وتبعاته التي تحدث عنها الكواكبي وحذر منها كما سنرى في ما سيأتي في الملخص. و سيلاحظ من يقرأ الكتاب لأول مرة خاصة إن كان متابعا للشؤون السياسية التي تحيط بالمسلمين عامة والعرب منهم خاصة، فسيرى لا محالة إسقاطات كثيرة لأمور ذكرها الكواكبي والتي أصبحت من يوميات واقعنا المعيش.هذا وإن فحوى الكتاب تتمحور حول تأصيل الاستبداد بذكر حده، وأعراضه، وأسبابه، والنتائج التي أوصل إليها من أصابهم سواء على المستوى الفردي، أو المجتمعي.</span></div>
<h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 18.666666666666664px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">لمحة عن الاستبداد:</span></h3>
<div>
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 18.666666666666664px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">يستهل الكواكبي كتابه بتعريف الاستبداد وماهيته حيث يذكر أنه صفة للحكومة المطلقة العنان فعلا أو حكما والتي تتصرف في شؤون الرعية بدون خشية حساب ولا عقاب محققين. وعليه فإن من مقوضات الحكومة الراشدة هو غياب الأجهزة التي تُسائل الحكومة في قراراتها وأفعالها، فإن غابت هذه الآليات في الحكومة شكل هذا الأمر بيئة خصبة وموطنا للاستبداد الذي يجعل من الحكومة الراشدة حكومة مطلقة في أفعالها وحكمها تجاه الرعية. ومن هنا فإن خشية حساب وعقاب المحققين يعتبر عاملا رئيسا رادعا في صون الحكومة من الاستبداد لكل من تراوده نفسه في تعدي حقوق الرعية. ويدخل في نطاق الحكومة المطلقة أيضا حكم الفرد المطلق الذي ورث العرش أبا عن جد، والذي يتحكم بزمام الجيش تحكما مطلقا لا يخضع لأي شكل من أشكال المسائلة النزيهة بعيدا عن أشباه المسائلات التي يصنعها لنفسه. ويضاف إلى ذلك إحاطة سدة حكمه بسلطة دينية تجعله الوصي الوحيد الأنسب لسياسة الشعب. وبلوغ الحكومة مرتبة الإطلاق لا يتأتى إلا باستفحال الجهل بين الأمة، واستبداد الجهل والتعالم على العلم، ومامنبع هذا الاستبداد الذي يتجلى في المظاهر السياسية إلا الاستبداد الديني الذي يؤسس أرضية الاستبداد السياسي. </span></div>
<h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 18.666666666666664px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">مظاهر الاستبداد: </span></h3>
<div>
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 18.666666666666664px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">قسم الكواكبي في كتابه مظاهر الاستبداد ومجالات انتشاره وتأثيره على الحياة بشكل عام مجموعة من الأبواب وهي:</span></div>
<h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 18.666666666666664px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الاستبداد والعلم:</span></h3>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">في خضم حديثه عن خطر استحواذ المستبد واضطهاده للعلم والعلماء، يقدم لنا الكواكبي صورة بيانية بليغة عن سعي المستبد لبقاء الرعية في ظلمات الجهل بعيدة عن نور العلم، حيث يشبهها بالوصي الخائن القوي الذي لا يخدمه أن يبلغ الأيتام رشدهم وبالتالي يطالبون بحقوقهم. فالحق في المعرفة والإعلام هو من بين الحقوق الإنسانية التي يجب أن يضمنها الدستور للرعية وبها تُضمن شفافية الممارسة السياسية وتضمن الرعية أيضا سلامة حقوقها الأساسية وعدم تغييبها بقصد أو بغير قصد. ويذكرالكواكبي أيضا أن من علامات المستبد أنه إن لم يكن له بد إلا الاضطرار إلى العلماء فإنه يحرص على اختيار الغبي منهم المتصاغر المتملق الذي تذهب به الرياح يمينا وشمالا فلا يعرف للحق وجهة إلا الوجهة التي يجدها في ما يرسل إليه من قبل من آثر التقرب إليهم بقربان العلم وكما يختصرها ابن خلدون في مقولته المشهورة " فاز المتملقون". إلى جانب هذا، فإن العلماء والمستبدون في نظر الكواكبي في صراع دائم حول من يستأثر بالعوام الذين يشكلون الأغلبية الساحقة. ويشير الكواكبي أن العوام هم الذين إذا خافوا جهلوا، وإذا خافوا استسلموا، كما أنهم هم الذين متى علموا قالوا ومتى قالوا فعلوا. </span></div>
<h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 18.666666666666664px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الاستبداد والمجد:</span></h3>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<br /></div>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">يقضي ابن خلدون بأن المجد مفضل على الحياة ويصل في خلاصة استدلاله أن المجد والتمجد شيئان مختلفان حيث يشير إلى أن التمجد يتعلق بالإدارات المستبدة، وهو القربى من المستبد بالفعل كالأعوان والعمال، أو بالقوة كالملقبين بنحو دوق وبارون أو أن يصير الإنسان مستبدا أصغر في ظل المستبد الأعظم. فالمستبد لا يستمد قواه إلا من جهل من أسرهم واستبدهم واستخفهم فأطاعوه القول وأذعنوا له، وصاروا يغذنوه بتمجيدهم له وإلا فالمستبد بعيدا عن قصائد الممجدين وصلوات العابدين له ليس إلا فردا عاجزا لا حول له ولا قوة.</span></div>
<h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 18.666666666666664px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الاستبداد والمال:</span></h3>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">إن القوة المالية تعتبر من بين ركائز هيمنة الدول على الرعية سواءا كانت مستبدة أو غير مستبدة وحتى على الدول التي تربطها بها علاقات سياسية أو اقتصادية أو مصالح مشتركة. وقد قالوا أنه لنجاح أي عمل يشترط اجتماع ثلاثة: المنهجية، والمادة، والرجال حيث أن المادة هنا هي القوة المالية. ويضمن المستبد استدامة استبداده عن طريق شراء العقول المتعالمة أو المحبة للمحبة والتقديس من قبل العوام ويصفه وصفا بليغ حين حين يقول أن الاستبداد لو كان رجلا وأراد أن يحتسب وينتسب لقال: " أنا الشر وأبي الظلم وأمي الإساءة وأخي الغدر وأختي المسكنة، وعمي الضر وخالي الذل، وابني الفقر و بني البطالة، وعشيرتي الجهالة، ووطني الخراب ، أما ديني وشرفي وحياتي فالمال المال المال".</span></div>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ويستأنف الكواكبي حديثه عن المال فيقول بأن "القوة كانت للعصبية ثم صارت للعلم ثم صارت للمال". وبعد الاسترسال في ذكر فضائل المال والاستدلال عليها بالأحاديث وذكر ما يمكن أن يجني المال على صاحبه، يذكر أن الإنسان لا يكون حرا ما لم تكن له صنعة مستقل فيها، وأن أقبح الوظائف وظائف الحكومة. وهذا مقصد ورأي الأخلاقيين وبعض الحركات الإصلاحية الإسلامية التي تحث تابعيها على ضرورة الاستقلال المالي عن الدولة .</span></div>
<h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 18.666666666666664px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الاستبداد والأخلاق</span></h3>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">في هذا الفصل يدخل الكواكبي في العلاقة القائمة بين الاستبداد والأخلاق حيث يعرف الأخلاق بأنها أثمار بذرتها الوراثة، وتربتها التربية، وسقياها العلم، والقائمون عليها هم رجال الحكومة. وعلى هذا الأساس فالسياسة تفعل في أخلاق البشر ما تفعله العناية في إنماء الشجر" وفي هذا إشارة إلى أن أخلاق الناس تتأثر تأثرا معتبرا بطبع وتطبع البشر فليست البيئة وحدها هي من تحدد كيف يتصرف البشر بل أيضا منشأهم أيضا يعتبر عاملا أساسا في تحديد طبيعة تصرفاتهم وهذا موضوع ذو شجون ليس المقام للخوض فيه هنا، وإنما ما هو تجدر الإشارة إليه هنا هو رجال الحكومة الذي يملكون الوسيلة لتشكيل أخلاق الناس وعجنها بما يتوافق ومصالحهم السياسية وإيديولوجياتهم، ولكم نرى هذا واضحا في الشعارات الوطنية التي ينادي بها أهل كل ملة رغم أن ما ينادون به لا يعدو أن يكون افكارا بثتها الطبقة الحاكمة بين الرعية حتى تضمن ذلك العمى والتعصب الممنهج الذي يصب في أجنداتهم. وقد اعتمدت الدول الغربية على هذه الاستراتيجية بشكل رهيب أو فيما يعرف بإدارة الإدراك حيث تقوم الحكومة بتحديد الملهيات التي تريد للرعية أن تعبث فيها حتى يتسنى لها استكمال ما قد خططت له بعيدا عن غوغاء وضوضاء الرعية العمياء. ويشاهد هذا الأمر بشكل كبير أيضا لدى المجتمعات العربية التي تنظر من طرف خفي لنظيراتها من الدول العربية رغم العوامل المشتركة الكثيرة التي تجمع ما بينها على غرار الدين واللغة والأخطار المشتركة، حيث إن حال هذه الشعوب كحال الجنيبات في بداياتها فإنه يتم التحكم في توجهها واعوجاجها، فكذلك الشعوب فإن الحكومة ترعاها ليس حبا ولكن حتى توجه اعوجاجها بما لا يشكل خطرا عليها، ولكن من يسعى لرعاية شعب معوج فإنه لابد من يوم وينقلب السحر على الساحر لأنه لم يكن لساحر أن يفلح حيث أتي. </span></div>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">وفي نفس هذا السياق يذكر الكواكبي أن الأخلاقيين قد أجمعوا على أن المتلبس بشائبة من أصول القبائح لا يمكنه أن يجزم بسلامة غيره منها وهذا معنى قولهم " إذا ساءت فعال المرء ساءت ظنونه" وهذا تصديق للمثل الجزائري القائل بأن من في بطنه التبن يخاف من النارأو كما يقول الجزائريون. وينتقل الكواكبي بعد الصولة في أصول الأخلاق إلى توصيف وعمل مقارنة للإنسان الغربي والشرقي حيث تاريخيا ويذكر أن الأوروبيين في بداياتهم وربما حتى الآن كان يحصرون ويسأثرون بالعلم لوحدهم وحتى منعه عن الأوروبيين أنفسهم حيث كان محصورا على الطبقات الأرستقراطية والحاكمة بخلاف العرب الذين نقلوا دائرة العلم من ذلك المستوى المحدود والمحتكر إلى الدائرة الواسعة وكان نتيجة لهذا - يقول الكواكبي- أن انتقل العلم حرا إلى كل طبقات المجتمع الأوروبي رغم كيد رجال الدين هناك. أما في توصيف كل من العالمَين الشرقي والغربي منه فإن الكواكبي يرى بأن من الصفات السائدة لدى الغربي أنه شخص تغلب عليه مادية الحياة، والحرص على الاستئثار والانتقام وهذه نظرة مغرضة بعض الشيء وكأن بالكواكبي يقع في نفس ما حذر منه إذ أن هذا التوصيف ربما وصله عن طريق الحكومات المستبدة التي عاصرها، وهي أيضا بطريقة ضمنية نظرة تمجيدية لحضارة الشرق وإعفاء كل حضارة الغرب التي أيضا قدمت للإنسانية الكثير بغض النظر عن أسسها العقيدية. وبعد هذا ينتقل الكواكبي إلى توصيف اجتماعي للصفات الفارقة بين الفردين حيث يرى بأن الشرقي يمكن أن تكون نقاط قوته في الاجتماعيات في حين أن الغربي تتركز قوته في الإفراديات ويخلص إلى أن الشرق ابن الماضي والخيال والغربي ابن المستقبل والجد وهي مجددا نظرة لا تعكس بالضرورة الواقع المستدام وإنما ربما كانت مرحلة مؤقتة في عصر الكواكبي أين كان عصر الضعف وعصر التبعية الأجنبية و أغلب البلدان العربية والإسلامية وفتئذ كانت تحت ربق الاستعمار الذي غالبا ما كان يستهدف اللغة والدين مثل ما حصل في الجزائر. وبعد هذه الجولة التي عرض فيها الكواكبي بعض الخصائص والصفات المميزة لكل من الشرقيين والغربيين، يعرج في هذه المرة على مفهوم الدين أو بشكل أخص أثر الفهم الخاطئ لمعنى الدين حيث يذكر أن أرض الدين هي "الأمة التي أعمى الاستبداد بصرها وبصيرتها وأفسد أخلاقها ودينها، حتى صارت لا تعرف للدين معنى غير العبادة والنسك الذين زيادتهما عن حدهما المشروع أضر على الأمة من نقصهما كما هو مشاهد عند المتنسكين. وفي هذا إشارة إلى خطورة فقدان الدين لبعده المجتمعي خاصة وأن الدين كما يقول مالك ابن هو الدافع للقيم الاجتماعية في حالتها الأولى التمددية والحركية لما يكون معبرا عن الأفكار الجماعية. </span></div>
<h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 18.666666666666664px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الاستبداد والتربية:</span></h3>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">تعد التربية من بين الركائز التي تقرر مصير الأمم والمجتمعات على المدى البعيد، إذ أن كل إصلاح يتم العمل عليه أو التخطيط له لا يؤتي أُكله في الغالب إلا بعد مرور عقود من الزمن كون الصناعة التربوية وما تحويه من فنون وعلوم لا يتم اكتسابها بين عشية وضحاها وإنما تستلزم صبرا ونفسا طويلا حتى يرى أهل الإصلاح والحل والعقد ثمرة سياساتهم. ونتاجا لهذا فإن الاهتمام بالتربية يكون غالبا للمستقبل ليس للحاضر، فوضع التربية يحدد بشكل حيوي مدى الاستبداد. فالاستبداد هو العنصر الماص للتربية وما تبنيه التربية مع ضعفها يهدمه الاستبداد مع قوته أو كما قال الشاعر: متى يبلغ البنيان تمامه… إذا كنت تبني وغيرك يهدم. </span></div>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">المعيشة الفوضى في الإدارات المستبدة غنية عن التربية، لأنها محض نماء يشبه الأشجار الطبيعية في الغابات والأحراش. وقد ذكر الكواكبي في قوله أن الأمم التي تقع تحت أمة تغايرها في السيماء، لا يمضي عليها أجيال إلا وتغدو فيها سيماء الآسرين، وذكر من ذلك الإفريقيين الذين صاروا بيضا في إشارة إلى شمال إفريقيا وفي هذا مجددا عدم دقة في هذا المعلومة التاريخية حول أصول سكان شمال إفريقيا حيث تذكر المصادرأنه في القديم كان يقسم المغرب إلى ثلاث أقسام: المغرب الأدنى ويضم تونس الحالية وأجزاء من الجزائر الشرقية، والمغرب الأوسط ويضم الجزائر الحلية، والمغرب الأقصى ويضم المغرب الحالية. وهناك رويات حول أصولهم فمنهم من يقول أن أصولهم أوروبية، ومنهم من يقول أسيوية، ومنهم من يقول أنهم من تبقى من البيزنطيين.</span></div>
<h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 18.666666666666664px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الاستبداد والترقي</span></h3>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">وهنا في جدلية الاستبداد والترقي والذي يذكره الكواكبي تحت دائرة الحركة التي هي في الأصل سنة عاملة في الخليقة مراوحة بين شخوص وهبوط. فالترقي هو الحركة الحيوية أي حركة الشخوص، ويقابله الهبوط وهو الحركة إلى الموت أو الانحلال أو الاستحالة أو الانقلاب وهذا يشبه إلى حد ما دورة الحضارة التي أشار إليها المفكر الجزائري مالك بن نبي في كتابه "مشكلة الأفكار في العالم الإسلامي" حيث يذكر أن كل حضارة تمر بثلاث مراحل أساسية وهي المرحلة الروحية أين تبرز للوجود فكرة دينية أو عقيدية تقدم للمجتمع، وبعد ذلك المرحلة العقلانية، إلى أن تصل الحضارة إلى مرحلة الفطرة وهي المرحلة التي تشهد فيها الحضارة تدهورا واضمحلالا وأيضا بعدا عن الأهداف والقيم التي أتت بها لأول مرة. واستطرادا نتساءل عن أي مرحلة وصلت فيه الحضارة الإسلامية الآن وهل هناك من أمل في أن تعود إلى مرحلة العقلانية ؟. وكنتيجة حتمية لدخول الأمم في مرحلة الفطرة على اصطلاح صاحب مشكلة الأفكار، فإن هذا الأمر سيؤدي بها حتى لتربية فطرة مريضة تسعى لطلب الحضيض من المراتب حتى لو دفعت دفعا إلى درب النور فإنك تجد فرائصها ترتعد من من هذا النور والترقي وتمثيل الكواكبي لها بتألم الأجهر بالنور تمثيل بليغ لأولي النهى. </span></div>
<h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 18.666666666666664px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الاستبداد والتخلص منه</span></h3>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">وفي محاولة من الكواكبي لتقصي جذور الاستبداد فإنه يقدم مقاربة تعتمد على التطور الأنثروبولجي للإنسان حيث يذكر بأن هذا الكائن مر بدهر كانت طبيعته ذات دور افتراسي، ومن ثم ترقى إلى دور اقتنائي، ثم انتقل إلى دور حضري وفي هذا الدورالأخير يعلل الكواكبي بأنها نقطة بداية الاستبداد لأن الإنسان سعى في تغيير طبيعته من التجوال إلى إيثار المُكُون والبقاء في أرض معينة والارتباط بها وحبها حيث جعله هذا الارتباط بالأشياء معرضا للأسر والاستبداد كون حياته بعيدا عن المكوث والاستقرار صارت في نظره مستحيلة. وبعد هذا التقصي ينتقل الكواكبي إلى إعطاء بعض التعاريف الأساسية وذات العلاقة بالحكومة ومسألة الاستبداد على غرار مفهوم الأمة، والحكومة، والحقوق العمومية مثل التساوي في الحقوق والحقوق الشخصية حيث يذكر في الحقوق الشخصية قاعدة يجب أن يعتبر بها الحكام وهي أن الأفراد أحرار في الفكر مطلقا وفي الفعل ما لم يخالف القانون الاجتماعي. ويستطرد أيضا في وظائف الحكومة عن طريق طرح أسئلة جوهرية عن ماهيتها وماهية الوظائف التي يجب أن تضطلع بها كمبحث وظائف الحكومة وهل هي إدارة لشؤون الأمة حسب الرأي والاجتهاد أو هي مقيدة بقانون موافق لرغائب الأمة وإن خالف الأصلح. ويذكر أيضا مبحث طاعة الأمة للحكومة ومداخلها وفحوى الطاعة من منظور سياسي ديني. وينتقل أيضا إلى مبحث ما اصطلح عليه في كتابه المراقبة على الحكومة أو ما يسميه أهل الاختصاص الآن " المسائلة" وهي في مفهومها العام تمكين الرعية وخلق آليات موضوعية لصالحها في حق محاسبة الحكومة على نشاطاتها التي تزاولها بدون تغييب أو تظليل لهذا الحق. </span></div>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ولعل لب الكتاب ونقطته العملية هي ما سنذكره الآن وهي القواعد والطرق الي يقترحها الكواكبي والتي من شأنها أن ترفع حاجب الاستبداد عن الرعية ومن أصيب به. ويعدد هنا ثلاث قواعد أساسية تساهم في دحض الاستبداد و أسبابه حيث يذكرنا أولا بأن الأمة التي لا يشعر كلها أو أكثرها بآلام الاستبداد لا تستحق الحرية لأنها أصلا طالبة للتسفل ولو أعطيت الترقي لتألمت كما سلف الذكر أو على لسان المتنبي: من يهن يسهل الهوان عليه… وما لجرح بميت إيلام. وقد قام الكواكبي بتوصيف حال هذه الأمة غير المستحقة للحرية: " </span></div>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><b><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: large;">”</span></span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">إن الأمة التي ضربت عليها الذلة والمسكنة وتوالت على ذلك القرون والبطون، تصير تلك الأمة سافلة الطباع حسب ما سبق تفصيله في الأبحاث السالفة، حتى إنها تصير كالبهائم، أو دون البهائم، لا تسأل عن الحرية، ولا تلتمس العدالة، ولا تعرف للاستقلال قيمة، أو للنظام مزية، ولا ترى لها في الحياة وظيفة غير التابعية للغالب عليها، أحسن أو أساء على حد سواء، وقد تنقم على المستبد نادرا ولكن طلبا للانتقام من شخصه لا طلبا للخلاص من الاستبداد، فلا تستفيد شيئا إنما تستبدل مرضا بمرض كمغص بصداع. وقد تقاوم المستبد بسوق مستبد آخر تتوسم فيه أنه أقوى شوكة من المستبد الأول، فإذا نجحت لا يغسل هذا السائق يديه إلا بماء الاستبداد، فلا تستفيد ايضا شيئا، إنما تستبدل مرضا مزمنا بمرض أحد، وربما تنال الحرية عفوا، فكذلك لا تستفيد منها شيئا لأنها لا تعرف طعمها فلا تهتم بحفظها، فلا تلبث الحرية أن تنقلب إلى فوضى، وهي إلى استبداد مشوش أشد وطأة كالمريض إذا انتكس. ولهذا قرر الحكماء أن الحرية التي تنفع الأمة هي التي تحصل عليها بعد الاستعداد لقبولها، و أما التي تحصل عليها على أثر ثورة حمقاء فقلما تفيد شيئا، لأن الثورة غالبا تكتفي بقطع شجرة الاستبداد ولا تقتلع جذورها، فلا تلبث أن تنبت وتنمو وتعود أقوى مما كانت أولا</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: large;">“</span></span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.</span></b></div>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">والقاعدة الثانية للتخلص من الاستبداد هو أنه لا يقاوم بالشدة وإنما يقاوم باللين والتدرج ورسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم قد دعى قومه بالتدرج، وكانت العديد من الأحكام تنزل بالتدرج كأحكام الصلاة وشرب الخمر وغيرها، كون الطبيعة البشرية لا تتقبل ما يخالف طبيعتها لو عرض عليها جملة وإنما تقبله إذا تم عرضه على مراحل حتى تتعود على ما استجد من هذا الأمر إلى أن تصبح مستعدة للتغيير. والمستبدون لا يقاومون ولا يجابهون بالمواجهة كونهم تغلغلوا في عروق المجتمع واجتثاثهم يؤدي لا محالة إلى فساد أكثر منه إلى صلاح. والقاعدة الثالثة والأخيرة للتخلص من الاستبداد هو إيجاد البدائل التي ستوضع مكان الاستبداد قبل البدء أصلا في مقاومته وإلا لسيؤول حال الأمة إلى أمة لا تشعر بآلام الاستبداد وبالتالي فحقها في الحرية يكون لاغيا. </span></div>
<h3 dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 14pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 18.6667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">الخاتمة </span></h3>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.2; margin-bottom: 24pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<span style="font-size: 16px; white-space: pre-wrap;">لقد حاول الكواكبي في كتابه هذا التعبير عما كان يعانيه المجتمع أثناء فترته من استبداد جلي وخفي، وطاعة عمياء بعباءة العلم والدين،وقد كان توصيفه لماهية الاستبداد وأشكاله وأسبابه دقيقا، واكتفى في آخر كتابه بعرض خطوط عريضة يستدل بها الباحثون عن الحرية في رحلتهم الشاقة للتخلص من الاستبداد والمستبدين. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span id="docs-internal-guid-d9b4e735-47ff-a766-c9a2-58b1ec49385a"></span></div>
<div dir="rtl" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: right;">
<br /></div>
</div>
Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-88099941312406043662016-03-09T01:24:00.000+02:002016-03-09T01:34:27.264+02:00From Falsity Everything Follows: Readings and Thoughts about Bitter Lake<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></div>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 32px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">From Falsity Everything Follows: </span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Readings and Thoughts about Bitter Lake</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b id="docs-internal-guid-c081e078-588c-b6b7-27d0-572f680cc197" style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">About the Documentary:</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“Bitter Lake” is an alternative media documentary directed by </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Curtis" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Adam Curtis</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> and it was first aired at </span><a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/p02gyz6b/adam-curtis-bitter-lake" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">BBC iplayer</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> on January 25th, 2015. The documentary talks about the relationship of Afghanistan with the West represented by USA, Middle East represented by Saudi Arabia, and Russia. </span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Origin</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">T</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">he West, as most of civilizations, is striving on to depict the version of reality that it wants to spread over the world. A reality that is, to no surprise, adapted to fit the framework of the millennium objectives many USA-related institutions are tinkering with. Within the context of this legacy, Adam laboured to do that in a form of new model of hybrid reality TV show he called </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Bitter Lake </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">that represents </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Bitter_Lake" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Great Bitter Lake</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, a site where The King Abdulaziz met with Roosevelt in the aftermath of Second World War. In </span><a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt4393514/" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Bitter Lakes</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, Adam Curtis tries to approach Afghanistan affair from an existentialist way where the world that affects our thinking is no longer meaningful and we, the viewers, doers, onlookers, suffer from that disorientation on deciding what is true and what is not. In this project, he also sets aims to infantilize the reductionists outcomes who simplify world’s problems; he does that by offering a mesmerising music background and offering a novel paradigm of power play dynamics.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></div>
<a name='more'></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Existentialist Heroes</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><img alt="No sense.jpg" height="228" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/sFe5pUCAuXwyY8ZPf20pWeaCaImKkG0KyB_KLgumqt4q4gdEB9o1FWeBhuHhe124tYyuzRbZZpVpIwtw4NqvyBj-lOyumZ7KrkG5zvKqfR6Rz0qtFAKpehqqHdfndfj1tWsAgtPn" style="-webkit-transform: rotate(0.00rad); border: none; transform: rotate(0.00rad);" width="305" /></span></div>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #999999; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 21.333333333333332px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">❝I opened myself to the gentle indifference of the world❞_Albert Camus</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Adam stated in the beginning of the documentary that “we live in a world that nothing makes any sense”. By that, he sets off his journey in dissecting and musing these existentialist heroes:</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<ul style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Saudi Arabia that was depicted as irrational, seeking out wealth with all the means, and also in the setting of the documentary it was pejoratively described as a country that is asking more than it can hold. This can be felt when the reporter challengingly addressed the Then Minister of Oil as he said that “ the developing nations like you “ hinting that the country’s economy is entrenched in </span><a href="http://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/petrodollars.asp" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">petrodollar </span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">dynamics but has neither technology nor audacity to stand near or against USA. Saudi Arabia was in these times a key role in Middle East rest and unrest and it was also aware of its confidence that can be induced in the confident smile and dramatic pauses of Sheikh Zaki Yamani when he commented on the matter of sudden raise of petrol as a reaction to Arab/Israeli conflict “ </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">well, you have to adapt to the new circumstances and we have to sit and talk seriously</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">”.</span></div>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><img alt="sit and talk.jpg" height="351" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/m5j8s5btPpxoe2ew1C9PwXylwtfeTL661fcKjIICS9LWn3dP6RE4ChwXEz8EzYXRHTWz2xI2JTqhwKS3TmUk7SaE7-2r4xh4krBoeyuSrScny3TlAAzK6Q52Un67kI8rtDZ1HBYC" style="-webkit-transform: rotate(0.00rad); border: none; transform: rotate(0.00rad);" width="579" /></span></div>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 10.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">A snap from the documentary: Sheikh Zaki Yamani</span></div>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #999999; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 21.333333333333332px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">❝you have to adapt to the new circumstances and we have to sit and talk seriously❞</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></div>
</div>
<ul style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The second character is Afghanistan in which westernization has affected society even at lower levels of thoughts. This can be seen in money that have been naively or deliberately pumped into the country that only turned a solution into a problem in which Afghanistan stands as model for international aids that didn’t only corrupt individuals but government institutions. In one his interviews Hafizullah Amin, the fourth president of Afghanistan reflected this status quo when he replied to the ex-Foreign Minister of the Ex-Soviet Union on reaction to his abusement of power against his opponents “ Did Stalin make revolution in white gloves?”. Given these symbiotic failures, there had to be an antagonist where hero soldiers can be conjured up in heroism and where a story can temporarily makes a sense.Taliban was born. Adam anachronistically gives us a puzzle of cuts and edits expecting us to restore the events of Afghanistan. This underlies an unclaimed truth that The West may have perceived Afghan people as some second people who are embryonic development, or rather it tries to proselytize them in the western thinking model that can be seen in the scene of the art instructor teaching participants the importance of a piece that belongs to Duchamp (the fountain). A wrong piece for the wrong people in the wrong time that even if it can explain the origin of the world, it only represents a perception of a western world for these people. The prejudices given by the west towards Afghanistan were cleared out by the journalist who visited them as she confessed :”My heart was given to these people who believe so much in their God”,Joanne Herring who ,in an interview, said about the Middle East “ You don’t know until you have lived in that country”</span></div>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.</span></div>
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<span style="border-color: initial; border-image-outset: initial; border-image-repeat: initial; border-image-slice: initial; border-image-source: initial; border-image-width: initial; border-width: initial; font-weight: bold; transform: rotate(0rad);"><div style="text-align: center;">
<img alt="Mirror of Joanne.jpg" height="256" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/be90D4L8y4pRr5-HDlRZcHMkqLHfVuPmBmm6LzDQ34mcgD04Z1cCStZ8vf75-paQGXNaOt3cIiSZfhyGwEiAlcRqxsvXuUjhOCdlQVDLpFmfWzO3F865Vk2aVZ_p7MQs9FUogbwM" style="border: none; transform: rotate(0rad);" width="345" /></div>
</span></span><br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #999999; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 21.333333333333332px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">❝You don’t know until you have lived in that country❞</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<ul style="margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The third main character in Bitter lake is USA that allegedly, according to Adam, decided to change the world and worse to do what Ronald Reagan said when he was running for presidency in 1979: “</span><a href="https://youtu.be/fAtYMD-H2UY?t=21m41s" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">we have it in our power to begin the world over again</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">”</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. The quest in the exotic Middle East was not free from blunders committed by the US politicians who funded what would be their enemy in the upcoming years. Tapping into that, Hilary Clinton clearly brought it to the spot when said:”the people we are fighting today, we funded 20 years ago”</span></div>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Subjective denominations:</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">According to the documentary, among the plans of Saudi Arabia was to take away the dangerous fundamentalist members toward Afghanistan. While this maybe true to some extent; however, the argumentation Adam has based his premises upon fell to some extent in the realm of arbitrariness and it was rather one-sided historical narrative. Certainly, we can see that in the problem we encounter at the coherence of this jigsaw narrative. This was corroborated by the scenes accompanied by acid music that reminiscent of seventieth science fiction movies surreal soundtracks along with other music of minor scale to reflect the tragical sad and the incompleteness as these scales are meant to be used in such moods. Interestingly, what you feel is that you’re in a hypnosis session with this kind of music. The tone of the documentary is of dystopian nature that reflects that everything is a complete fiasco and nothing can be restored.This blend of existentialism, acid music, and mysticness have something in common with the novel of Paulo Coelho “ </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Zahir_(novel)" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">the Zahir</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">” where the protagonist goes on a global mission to search for his lost soul and lost beloved one and the irony strikes here as the name of the Shah Zahir, the Then king of Afghanistan, was in fact the first brick of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kajaki_Dam" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Kajaki dam project</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Chronicles of Wars: Pride and Prejudice</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">By going forward, the documentary tucks in the war chronicles and Adam at the very beginning takes sides by catalysing some people in calling them insurgents which is really biased because it only reflects one-sided view since unless corroborating arguments are present there is no way to know whether to label them insurgents or a freedom fighters. After that, we move on to another scene where soldiers are doing ritual-like act and confessing to each other about going against the order and unmercifully killing villagers where the quantity doesn’t matter for them since they are only “</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">a bunch of people</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">”</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">; there, the human has no value but it’s rather a number in a digital system. Worse than that is when one of them praised them by saying “we really need born killers like you”, killers who can be bred up by psychoanalytical tricks.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Going back to Saudi Arabia, Adam depicts in one the videos when The king of Saudi Arabia discusses with Roosevelt saying that he wanted technology and money and stressed that his faith is to be left alone. At these times, Saudi Arabia was ( as it is still) in its crazed rush to be armed and one of the most records for that was what Thatcher announced what would be known as the biggest arm deal in history for Saudi Arabia, that did but nothing with these arms it bought thanks to </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The King’s wisdom</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. A king who, according to historical records and archives mentioned in the documentary, was brought to royal seat by warriors whom he has ruthlessly killed later on. </span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">At some point in the documentary, Adam strikes us with his conspiracy flavor twists, by creating the image of Afghanistan, a pandora’s box that hides more than it reveals, a wilderness of mirrors where you think that you can see everything surrounding you but in fact nothing can be seen with your bare eyes. You can compare this to what literary critics call it </span><a href="http://global.britannica.com/art/anagnorisis" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">recognition</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> a sudden frightening moment of discovery of ourselves.This is what Adam was likely trying to depict In one of the footages by creating a link between </span><a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0069293/" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Solaris </span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">the movie and the US soldier who was frightened by a some kids sitting while he was walking by. He goes on with his hidden messages when he commented on the visit of Afghan King to UK that “in the world there are kings and queens and where dogs behaved obediently…”. This secrets away a statement that commoners are supposed, by and large, to blindly, whether with or without their will, obey the order of the Elites in the crown, a sect that processes the world world differently and they may not necessarily compete for money since they already have the keys, but they are likely to have a lust for power and control.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></div>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The dove and the Kid</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><img alt="Dove and the kid.jpg" height="277" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/dLZcIJQNGO8jvQPlDRY2S0yt9vSWbMdFnFTiycpsigjFXo_yBTGg6OO2cBTHf5gmqrMDK-eb_CXS8dpRi12JQv36NqUXinEYJhqGh7ePEoSDtuvwDqBAN9CH9sgxXvJLWRiYJU70" style="-webkit-transform: rotate(0.00rad); border: none; transform: rotate(0.00rad);" width="400" /></span></div>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Figure 01: a snap from the documentary </span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the footage of the soldier who miraculously found a dove which is a sign of peace, the dove was in fact a little that could barely fly. This scene rhymes with the old Arabic </span><a href="http://www.maqamworld.com/forms.html" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Muwashah </span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">about love “ </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">like a bird in the hands of a boy;</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">neither the boy feels sorry for her nor the bird has wings to fly away” </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">After </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">flashingly </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">ending that scene, Adam travels to Russia and starts talking about its involvement in Afghanistan affairs although in this documentary it was not really among the main characters. Here I wonder whether Afghanistan was the main reason for the Soviet Union to fall apart since what they thought to be their last sanctuary of building up their communist model nation was in fact the dumping pool where they witnessed the beginning of their end and maybe manipulated by the effects of the Afghan ocean as it was the case in Solaris the movie. This was elaborately expressed by a Russian reporter who framed it as follows:“ we thought that we were civilizing a backward country, but we rarely stopped to think how Afghanistan would influence us”.</span></div>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Adam also ventured in claiming that </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasa" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Medresa</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">’s were very closed to Wahhabism, but the fact that Wahabi disciples condemned them to be going astray and accordingly calling them anathema. </span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Politicians Surrender to Bankers</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Bitter Lake is in fact a chaotic world Adam Curtis decided to draw for himself and wanted us to see it through bird eye view. It is a way of expressing his understanding of what surrounds him and his perception of Politics where he wanted to convey the message that </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">once the politicians gave away their power to the banks they stopped being able to change the world even they wanted to do</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Thus, you cannot change the world when you don’t have the financial power to do that. </span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Is Bitter Lake Still Bitter?</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><img alt="Bitter than bitter.jpg" height="194" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/6KS3ha3P_GoNJer24m5tpXe0qGevnTXN7lnn__kxt1nKtj8lptZthXUiKSFEff0jDexayajAL5GCOkkzlLrknDGbx2EyTI_VFWD8spWpQaUenbnJK1B1H-nAZnPat6xGtpBqYAFI" style="-webkit-transform: rotate(0.00rad); border: none; transform: rotate(0.00rad);" width="259" /></span></div>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #999999; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 21.333333333333332px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">❝What we don’t know keeps hurting us❞</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">By the end of the documentary Adam leaves us with some rhetorical thoughts and wonders of whether America has faced the same ocean Russians have faced before in Afghanistan, a dumping pool that lures great powers into undermining the effect of such country that would affect them in a way they don’t realize in the short term; Russia is an example. What we can imply is that Adam took the multi-layered perception of enmity that Afghan have adopted, seeing the world as a bunch of interrelated choices that affect each other. While the west perceived the conflict in Afghanistan as a binary basis in which the problems of the world are merely a matter of right and wrong, locals and people in afghanistan perceived it as a matrix where right answers are not the one that are true but the one that are useful. Russians and Americans know for sure that there is something out there boiling and mumbling, yet they didn’t find the apparatus to detect it or tame it. </span></div>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Britain went there with a false knowledge, Russia was there with a false hope, USA was also there with false claim; they all went there starting from falsity, false premises; however, all of them were not really there; and therefore, Bitter Lake is still bitter, simply because from falsity anything follows(ex falso quodlibet).</span></div>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">What are the stories that await us?</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b>References:</b></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b><br /></b></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
1. <span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: center;">"2014 Texas Women's
Hall of Fame Joanne Herring - YouTube." 2014. 19 Feb. 2016 <</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: center;"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RXaVABBhVhw"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RXaVABBhVhw</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: center;">>.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: center;"><br /></span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: center;">2. </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: center;">"11/13/1979
Speech - Ronald Reagan Presidential Library." 2016. 18 Feb. 2016 <</span><a href="https://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/reference/11.13.79.html" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-size: 10.0pt;">https://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/reference/11.13.79.html</span></a><span style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: center;">>.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: center;"><br /></span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: center;">3. </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: center;"> "Hillary Clinton : We created Al-Qaeda - YouTube." 2011. 23 Feb. 2016
<</span><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dqn0bm4E9yw" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-size: 10.0pt;">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dqn0bm4E9yw</span></a><span style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: center;">>.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: center;"><br /></span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: center;">4. </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: center;">"Kajaki Dam -
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia." 2011. 18 Feb. 2016 <</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: center;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kajaki_Dam"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kajaki_Dam</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: center;">>.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: center;"><br /></span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: center;">5. </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: center;">"<span dir="RTL" lang="AR-SA">لطفي بوشناق - لو كان لي قلبان/ يا من هواه أعزه
وأذلني</span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span> ..." 2010. 19 Feb. 2016 <</span><a href="https://youtu.be/45PKJaEjm4s?t=4m57s" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-size: 10.0pt;">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=45PKJaEjm4s</span></a><span style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: center;">>.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: center;"><br /></span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; text-align: center;">6. </span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
</div>
</div>
<div>
<div id="ftn5">
</div>
</div>
</div>
Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-28985901889675018682015-12-11T18:48:00.001+02:002016-01-19T17:40:23.947+02:00Being in Bed with Mosquitoes: the Teacher Scene<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“Being in bed with Mosquitoes: The Teacher Scene”</span></div>
<b id="docs-internal-guid-4d507c55-91ed-3dd4-5321-985d43fcd4e6" style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><img height="206px;" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/qeX8b7Scw3dn7UJqZSjWPnA0lfVZ9T4eBQEWiDh-cvw6HzAxaQs0P6i5-zMU-gYyxALMVXKlHIq8a6Wq_0F3x_vEWj8UnPCMhZ-Xqk_6z4Dw-6IcvZmQrjCyli1fWRERvtvIm-VzXgbrJa8C" style="-webkit-transform: rotate(0.00rad); border: none; transform: rotate(0.00rad);" width="241px;" /></span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Some of us, during the course of our lives, will try to swim along with the ebb and others against the tide. However, eventually, we all have to swim, willy-nilly, else sinking would be our end. This also includes the world of ideas that people conjure up which consists the most difficult step to starting up an idea, a project, or course of action and this is the kick-off. This fact is corroborated by Statistics that show that 90% of start-ups fail even before starting. So, what is about investing in being a teacher for you? how do we know whether it will be an epic win or a complete fiasco for our career? Since I’m from Algeria, a typical Middle Eastern country, in our patrimony, </span><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">a teacher is considered to be the legitimate heir of the oracles and prophets because as the former enlightens the minds and hearts so as the latter</span><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Indeed, Prophets use the power of miracles as a proof for their prophecy; while teachers use the power of endurance as a proof that a white paper can be filled with many wonders that have the potential to change the world. This dynamic of change is mainly conveyed by means of language with its broader notional definition that is a set of symbols whether graphic or auditory encoded and arranged in a systematic way. </span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The question is how these symbols are able to ignite the sparkle of change to the nominal and phenomenal as it is expressed in the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noumenon" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1155cc; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Kantian terminolgy</span></a><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">.</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><img height="237px;" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/5mTlUgXmsDWbEpytpUsCcSWisKOW0uFMDDNh3yUFWUJa4Hr9pIHa8yG3FTQNdY25WPc1cG11dTosIGP0WaaBbdaN6Xm-dTJlA2FNCmW1ts2QICOSfabfr1t3Dbd4OlTo9JfivsmEcGoQpvV_" style="-webkit-transform: rotate(0.00rad); border: none; transform: rotate(0.00rad);" width="326px;" /></span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Being a mosquito or a green teacher doesn’t mean weak:</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">What I know is that to start you have to be a hero because you will be resisting your own pandemonium, to continue you have to be in love with endurance, to reach the end you have to be a walking dead against your priorities discourse. So?... what do mosquitoes have to do with that?”. I decided to include this tiny insect, which is causing much turmoil, because of its physical tininess doesn’t prevent it from letting its buzzing heard while we are hitting the hay, turning around, looking for some free blood to tuck in. They can be nasty by turning our dreams into nightmares and by making our beds into a battle field between our hands and them in which we are not likely to enjoy the cosy night that we would normally enjoy when these ninja insects are absent.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">If you are or were a boy scout or spent a considerable time camping in forests, you would have probably been introduced to mosquitoes the first day you settled your tent. So, mosquitoes have that bad reputation and I guess that few people looked at them as a source of inspiration (you may be scratching your head now:” mosquitoes?”) and even many may think that they are unnecessary creatures that have escaped nature or nature escaped from them. Mosquitoes cannot be hindrance for humans in their quest to carry out their noble mission implicitly or explicitly. The imagery that I’m trying to conceptualize between mosquitoes’ action and new-starter teachers needs your objective view towards these insects who are fighting to live as you are. </span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Brave the world </span><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">sifu</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><img height="225px;" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/_1ILUQgZ_8yiXYISfK0yVh1tbCxP7iTUqbNkn1PKpXu1IGOPac8K8TMrOQZZ0hkFLhzpC6c-eIJu17c1MAk9DDPvlHQq3RKEWN6YLHTjehidR5tW38juwei8nBUIvnuADyJC0swJtXhOnxzr" style="-webkit-transform: rotate(0.00rad); border: none; transform: rotate(0.00rad);" width="268px;" /></span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The world of teaching contains many questions that some of them are bigger than me and need much sweat and toil to come up with that magical potion of answers but I can contemplate about some and by that I would like to approach them from a “</span><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">why” </span><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">perspective leaving out the “how” perspective another time if time allows for that. There is a common belief that teachers have to attend infinity conferences, infinity seminars and networking with the gurus and hippo’s of teaching industry and if they don’t, they are just anathema. Also, many get</span><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">trapped in that term: “</span><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">lifelong learner “</span><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">in which it may cause a misunderstanding that hinders their advancement instead of fostering it. Added to that ammunitions, it’s critically compulsory to have been graduated from a prestigious university that its ranking is above all. The above-mentioned elements are not wrong and they should be encouraged; however, this doesn’t allow you to sit at your laurels where it may happen that you are in a condition and environment these elements cannot be afforded.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> So, What if the university where you are studying is an isolated boondocks or your finance is against your will in the seminars and conferences that seem to be everywhere except in where you to live ?. It can be a deception for young teachers, young professionals and those whom the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Consolation_of_Philosophy" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1155cc; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Lady Fortune</span></a><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> turned its wheel against them. Many teachers who are involved in the teaching industry are striving on to bring up the next generation, be they competent or incompetent This should not be completely based on competence nor interest nor even talent but rather commitment because this latter creates formers if teachers labor enough. Many teachers are aware of that and they break the records and achieve milestones silently; they proceed forward unnoticed by conference organizers and ELT monks even if the scale of their change is not that large but it’s effective in their respective environments and it is just a local change they heading for.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">You can it</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In that frame, even if you are as tiny as mosquitoes, you can reach your expected social change via your profession in your environment or with your little darling brats you’re teaching. As a teacher, I have to have the feeling that I need to make a change whether I want to or have to. But can teachers who are not in the spotlight ignite the small change? I have some bad news: the environment is never optimal nor is it friendly for teachers every time and this can originate from educational systems and education policy makers who belittle them on the ground of “ you are just a teacher” thinking that their sole </span><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">métier </span><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">only</span><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">consists of feeding the chicken</span><span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Teachers have to be aware of The beautiful changes they can reach and it’s up to them whether to keep this desire of change within themselves or beside it as Rousseau framed it once upon. However, I prefer that you, as a teacher (I’m also addressing the mosquitoes) make someone hear it from you so you can tell people what small changes you could, you can, or you will be able to do.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">To end with, one of the greatest leaders of the modern world, Abraham Lincoln, comprehended that and interpreted it in a canonical manner when he said :” With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in”; and therefore, you can also strive on as long as your mind is not your limit.</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">I would like to see your opinions if you are or were a new teacher: did you find it easy? hard? maybe trick? did you ever have thoughts that you are too small to make a change?. Share with the world</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: black; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Mehdi Zouaoui</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 1.295; white-space: pre-wrap;">Education Consultant</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.295; margin-bottom: 8pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 1.295; white-space: pre-wrap;">Middle East Development Network(MDN)</span></div>
<br /></div>
Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0İstanbul, İstanbul, Türkiye41.0082376 28.97835889999998940.6247881 28.332911899999988 41.3916871 29.62380589999999tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1330739429102073676.post-27453076745968676052015-06-07T20:53:00.001+03:002015-06-14T15:48:48.006+03:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Double
Narratives of Turkey’s Foreign Policy towards Middle East:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The Quest of
Balancing Interests and Ethics<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">By Mehdi
ZOUAOUI<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference">*</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: FA;">J</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US">ust</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> right after
the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Turkey aspired to take after Europe
since it perceived it as the most suitable political and economic model.
Accordingly, After the split with the Arab Countries, Turkey turned into a
secular and democratic country unlike the Arab states who remained Islamic and
non-democratic<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn1" name="_ednref1" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[i]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>(Bauer,
2012) and by that the Arab states represented the alter ego of it as they were
what Turkey was not what it wants to be. This has led to many twists between </span><span lang="EN-US">Turkey and Arab relations that were
characterized by mutual distrust. While the Arab regimes were being toppled
down one after another in the recent years, Turkey found itself vacillating
between either protecting its interests way or helping scaffold the increasing need of democracy promotion in
these countries that share with it cultural, historical, and geographical
commonalities. Certainly, every choice has its trade-offs that will inevitably
affect Turkey in the internal or external scope. A central claim in this
context is that although these ties that bind Turkey with the Arab world, these
relations cannot be seen and looked at from a simplistic approach due to the
overlapping dimensions and the different perspectives the status quo it keeps
gaining especially with the crazed Arab Spring aftermaths. The main theme of
this is to argue for is that recent
reengagement of Turkey in The Middle East reflects a policy of re-questing this
region that once used to be ruled by Ottoman. Within that context, is Turkey
trying to conduct an expansionist mercantilist-based campaign in The Middle
East or it is trying to reach out to this region so it can fulfill its global
mission it shares with many of The Middle East countries. We put forward that Turkey’s actions
interest-based more than they are identity-based ones.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<h3 style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span style="font-size: large;">There she goes</span></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">When the Arab Spring set off in Tunisia in 2010, Turkey <i>mysteriously </i>kept
silent and once the revolution in Egypt burst out. Erdogan, the then Head of
the Turkish government rushed into asking Hosni Mubarak to step down from the
regime without any hesitation as it was the case in Tunisia. The situation in Libya
was more complicated because Turkey was caught between ethics and interest
where there were at least 25,000 Turkish workers in Libya. This discrepancy in
decision-making maybe described, per se, as double standard and it has put
Turkey under the loop of many scholars. That inconsistency in conducting a
reliable approach has driven Turkey to lose some of its momentum before of the
Arab opinion for some span of time. According to TESEV, Turkey reputation in
the Levant countries has dropped from 93% to 44%. <span style="color: red;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">If we look at Turkey’s core activities, it can be described to have that
mercantilist-driven approach with the exception that is blended with a
soft-power method where it tries to spread its political and economic dominion
over Middle East. This strategy was the outcome of the leadership vacuum<b> </b>in
the Arab-Muslim world: Egypt falling apart, Saudi Arabia being sedated, Syria being
powerless, and Iraq being already torn apart if not by war by internal ethnic
and ideological conflicts between the struggling sects.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">These successive events and available data in hand were the catalysts of a
mercantilist drive of the Turkish arsenal it will be implementing so it can win
the Arab world region. This was as soft-power policy that was launched as
counter-measure against the clandestine intervention of the West and Israel in
the affairs of this region. Basically, that strategy lies in the continuous
interloping activities that overlap with those of the West, yet they would be
addressed from different perspectives as Ozhan Taha stated it: “The US and
Turkey have overlapping concerns and interests in the Middle East. However, it
would be too simplistic to expect that the two countries will adopt the same or
parallel approaches”<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn2" name="_ednref2" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> .
The rationale behind this is that Turkey wants to seize that opportunity to
gain more recognition from the Western friends and foes as legitimate and
strategic “intermediate” key-actor between the West and the East. Added to this
quest of seeking recognition, it is important to note that Mercantilism has
some components of capitalism but this latter is mainly based on free trade
model advanced by Adam Smith in his “<i>Wealth of Nations” </i>book. The
agendas of modern Turkey that is led by Erdogan rhymes with the theory of
Neo-Ottomanism that seeks to get back what it had yet in a more mercantilist
way. The reason behind this is that when Turkey looks at ME it remember what it
used to be not what it wants to be. Turkey would serve as the Mother country
that extracts raw materials whether natural or human ones that are abundant in
the Middle East. This process is being eased the lack of a wise government management in Middle
East (ME) and the absence of a fully-fledged democratic system in this region without
a strong grass root bases which opens the doors to one <i>negotiator</i>:
Turkey. With that said, according to Joshua Muravchik (2004) the number of
Arabic countries among the 22 ones which have a freely elected government is technically
none”<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn3" name="_ednref3" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>.
Another emergence of mercantilism in Turkish relation toward ME is the way the
cycle of raw materials are taken and returned to the Arab countries in a form
of commodities that are more expensive than what it has already taken from
them. The question that we may ask here is whether the profit is shared by the
alleged mother country and the Arab countries or it is only a Turkish monopoly.
As for the elements of promulgating laws that can protect that interest, it is
likely that Turkey does not have the power to pass laws to other countries to
prevent them from creating their own policies that would bridge that gap of
management; however, it is using an alternative that compensates for that
direct involvement which is soft power. If soft power does not prove effective,
Turkey will be left but only with resorting to military intervention. In that
framework, Ahmed Davut</span>oğlu in his
article ‘‘Turkey’s Foreign Policy’’ stated that enabling both a wise soft power
along with military power should be ‘coherent’.<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn4" name="_ednref4" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">In addition, it is important to cast light at the alliance of Turkey with
the West who deems it the optimal mediator or interpreter of the Middle East
and by that the Western fear of losing Turkey is a real one<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn5" name="_ednref5" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[v]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a></span>. <span lang="EN-US"> This
leadership hegemony is confirmed by a survey conducted by the University of
Maryland, where Turkey rated 54% as the most suitable model among Saudi Arabia,
Iran, Turkey, Tunisia, Malaysia, and Morocco<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn6" name="_ednref6" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[vi]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>.
This implies that the fleet of Justice and Development Party (abbreviated as
AKP) is playing on the chord of the common cultural identity and it is striving
to marry religion at politics. Interestingly, AKP was only founded 14 August
2002 which is relatively a new political identity compared to other parties who
have an extended experience in their agenda such as Welfare Party (RP) that held
the view that Turkey should be the leader of the Muslim world<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn7" name="_ednref7" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[vii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>
. Added to that, while the Arab rulers are laboring to establish a <i>modus
vivendi </i>with their respective population in an attempt to strengthen their
autocratic patrimonialist system, the Turkish armada is seizing that
opportunity and it’s rushing into influencing the top of the government that
would be easier for it to overcome due to its autocratic nature. At the same
time, it is seeking change at the societal level through different channels
like soap operas and the heroic stances of Erdo</span>ğan in many international platforms. Along with
that, alternative diplomacy, was hinted
in Ahmet Davutoğlu’s article when he stipulates that <span lang="EN-US">“Turkey does have
influence in Middle Eastern affairs, and not only at the state level but also
at the societal level”<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn8" name="_ednref8" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[viii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>.
It is important to notice that Turkey did not show the same enthusiasm for all
the parts of ME and the degree of commitment to it was fluctuant according to
the region and the benefits it can offer Turkey. For instance, it remained
silent and sometimes hesitant in the wake of the Arab Spring<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn9" name="_ednref9" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ix]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>.
After a while, it did some repackaging in order to stand as the undisputed
leader in ME and it started accordingly to pave the way to spread its wings
over the demising Arab economies. Turkey’s wish to rule the ME in its broad
sense was clearly uttered in the speech of the then Foreign Minister Ahmet </span>Davutoğlu when he stated that <span lang="EN-US">“<b>Turkey
would henceforth lead the movement for change in the Middle East, we will
continue to be the leader of this wave… there is a new Middle East and we will
be its owner, leader, and servant… irrespective what others say, the new
order’s leader and spokesperson will be Turkey</b>”<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn10" name="_ednref10" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[x]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>.
This clear-cut declaration has led many elites in the Arab world to perceive
Turkey as an interloper who wants to barge in every affair or as a stooge of
the West. Also, Turkey continues its trial and errors operations actions to get
the large stake of the Arab world by means of popular diplomacy and cultural
Turkish-based events such as soap opera that has revealed the schizophrenic
nature of the Arab struggle to balance both tradition and modernity.<span style="color: red;"> </span>Indeed, it has succeeded to gain some heart in the
Arab world by projecting the image of the opponent who would stand up to
Israel. In doing so, the idea of the secular Turkey marketed by the Kemalist
movement started to fade away from the Arab opinion, and </span>with this course of actions Turkey is steadily
gaining a blazing star status of being the Middle East leader and savior. This
image was mainly the result of three seminal factors <span lang="EN-US">: Trading Effect, the
Marketing of the Turkish democratization as “<i>a work in progress”</i>, and
the new strata of Turkish foreign policy<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn11" name="_ednref11" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xi]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>. The afore-mentioned factors are seen by many
scholars as stimulating and easing the unspoken <i>Neo-Ottoman</i> project. The
trading system factor represents the most important element that inspires its
tactics from <i>mercantilism</i>. The second factor is the marketing of
democratization achievements in Turkey as: Turkish model, example, or
inspiration even though some scholars do not give Turkey that status of being a
democratic success story, but they rather consider it as partially liberalized
autocracy<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn12" name="_ednref12" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>.
However, as a transition country, the stage of democracy Turkey has reached and
the concrete outcomes it has gained has given it the shine of being a
discussable transferrable experience to the
Middle East to the extent of claiming this region that once belonged to
the Ottoman and should now be taken back under its authority. These Neo-Ottoman
views were expressed in Ahmet Davuto</span>ğlu
book entitled <i><span lang="EN-US">Strategic Depth </span></i><span lang="EN-US">where he proposes that the
leadership is for Ottoman<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn13" name="_ednref13" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>. The third factor is the change in the Turkish
foreign policy that was characterized right after the Cold War by problems with
the neighboring countries such as Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Greece and Turkey was
named as the<i> post-cold war warrior </i>accordingly. Turkey, by and large, is
seen as secular Muslim led by what is termed as “Muslim Democrat” who rhymes
with “Christian Democrats” in Europe. Also, it has a questionable past in
Arab-Israel conflict where under its secular leadership was the first Muslim-majority
country nation to recognize Israel in 1949, which is antonymic for most of the
Arab world opinion. This latter lessens it to be the epitomical model for the ever-changing
Middle East. This may cut down the permeability and transversality of
influencing the decision-making in the Arab world, with Syria as an example of
such relative failure of triggering change at the top level. This means that
even if the will is present in Turkey, the resources are not that sufficient
for such process.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">All these above-cited facts and figures lead us to wonder about the reason
why Turkey decided to be reengaged in the Middle East again although it may not
be that Promised Land for its re-quest.</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US">With the arrival of Justice and Development Party
(AKP) to the rule the equilibrium of export and import was positive with the
Arab countries, and exchange was going up steadily as the figure shows (Figure
1). In other words, Turkey is trying to catch up what it has already lost and
it’s trying to direct the steer towards the Arab world after it has been jilted
by the European club who still considers it as a strange entity to the cultural
structure of Europe. Turkey’s AKP, offended with these continuous and invalid
refusals, decided to go with the wind of the Arab world so it can acquire more
negotiation points when bargaining with the Europeans by claiming the
understanding and possession of ME.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<v:shapetype coordsize="21600,21600" filled="f" id="_x0000_t75" o:preferrelative="t" o:spt="75" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" stroked="f">
<v:stroke joinstyle="miter">
<v:formulas>
<v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0">
<v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0">
<v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1">
<v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2">
<v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth">
<v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight">
<v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1">
<v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2">
<v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth">
<v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0">
<v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight">
<v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0">
</v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:formulas>
<v:path gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect" o:extrusionok="f">
<o:lock aspectratio="t" v:ext="edit">
</o:lock></v:path></v:stroke></v:shapetype><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_1" o:spid="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 247.5pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 358.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:\Users\MDN_USER\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\02\clip_image001.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">Figure 1: Turkey’s trade with the Arab Countries
(in million USD)<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn14" name="_ednref14" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">AKP, knowing the suitability of the moment in order to raid Middle East
with diplomatic visits, started its agenda of visits to ME more than the rest
of the world. According to the Turkish Ministry of Affairs the average of
visits to the Middle East that were conducted by higher official was about 45
visits from 143, i.e.: around 31.47% and this is only from 2003 till 2011<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn15" name="_ednref15" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a>.
What drove Turkey’s foreign policy to thrive and gain momentum in the eyes of
the Arab world is the Islamic clout heritage that it shares with it, in which
it eased the process of shaping the statute of Turkey as the promised savior
that would revive the old glories of the Arab empire or rather the Ottoman Empire.
The Return on Investment (ROI) of Turkey in ME
has already paid off and showed some economic fruits, yet the geographic
expansionist plans pay-off will have to
wait and will eventually appear in the long run. In that Turkish expansionism context, the Lebanese
ex-Minister Karim Pakradouni warned that the Neo-Ottoman would encourage Ankara
to rush directly into a more deepened strategy in taking over Syria if the
Syrian Regime is brought down<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_edn16" name="_ednref16" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: FA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xvi]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a></span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">The answers
to the research questions that we advanced are straightforward due the
pluri-dimensionality of this relation.
Also, while Turkey is trying to decipher Middle East, it is carefully striving to
create a zero-sum conflict between ethics and interest. We have to understand
that the world of politics is not compatible with arbitrariness nor it gives a
room or a chance for gullible decision-makers. According to that basis,
Turkey’s quest for Middle East is based on soft power mercantilist-driven
approach where it is seeking to stand out as the sole intermediate between the
West and Middle East, and by that, being the gate keeper to this region that
keeps getting worse day after second. Turkey’s claim for the Middle East to be
its own property is due to vacant leadership seat in Arab countries, and consequently,
Turkey is taking benefits from that state that was created by a sophisticated
Western vacuum machine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div>
<!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<br />
<div id="ftn1">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference">*</span></a> <a href="https://tr.linkedin.com/in/mehdizouaoui"><span lang="EN-US">Education and Policy
Adviser</span></a><span lang="EN-US"> at </span><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/middle-east-development-network"><span lang="EN-US">Middle East
Development Network</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
<br />
<div>
<!--[if !supportEndnotes]--><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<br />
<div id="edn1">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref1" name="_edn1" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[i]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Bauer,
Michael and Schiller, Thomas. “The Arab Spring in 2012.” in C-A-Perspectives.
Center <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
for Applied Policy Research. (Munich, Germany:
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität-<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
München, 2012).<o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
<div id="edn2">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref2" name="_edn2" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif;">Ozhan,
Taha. "The Arab Spring and Turkey: The Camp David Order vs. the New Middle
East."<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Insight Turkey</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>13.4 (2011): 55-64.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
<div id="edn3">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref3" name="_edn3" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif;">Muravchik,
Joshua. "Bringing democracy to the Arab world."<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>CURRENT HISTORY-NEW YORK THEN
PHILADELPHIA-</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>103 (2004):
8-10.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
<div id="edn4">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref4" name="_edn4" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif;">Davutoğlu,
Ahmet. "Turkey’s foreign policy vision: An assessment of 2007."<i>Insight
Turkey</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>10.1 (2008): 77-96.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
<div id="edn5">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref5" name="_edn5" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[v]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif;">Dede,
Alper Y. "The Arab uprisings: debating the Turkish model."<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Insight Turkey</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>13.2 (2011): 23-32.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
<div id="edn6">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref6" name="_edn6" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[vi]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif;">Telhami,
Shibley. "What Do Egyptians Want? Key Findings from the Egyptian Public
Opinion Poll."<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Brookings
Institution</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(2012).</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn7">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref7" name="_edn7" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[vii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif;">Öniş,
Ziya. "Globalization and party transformation: Turkey’s Justice and
Development Party in perspective."<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Globalizing
democracy: party politics in emerging democracies. London: Routledge</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(2006): 1-27.</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn8">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref8" name="_edn8" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[viii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span lang="EN-US">Idem iv<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn9">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref9" name="_edn9" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ix]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span lang="EN-US">Idem.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn10">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref10" name="_edn10" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[x]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span lang="EN-US">Mecliste gergin
Suriye oturumu,” Radikal, April 26, 2012.</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn11">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref11" name="_edn11" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xi]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif;">Kirişci,
Kemal. "Turkey’s ‘demonstrative effect’and the transformation of the
Middle East."<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Insight
Turkey</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>13.2 (2011): 33-55.</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn12">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref12" name="_edn12" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif;">Brumberg,
Daniel.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Democratization Versus
Liberalization in the Arab World: Dilemmas and Challenges for US Foreign Policy</i>.
ARMY WAR COLL STRATEGIC STUDIES INST CARLISLE BARRACKS PA, 2005.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
<div id="edn13">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref13" name="_edn13" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif;">Walker,
Joshua. "Learning Strategic Depth: Implications of Turkey‘s New Foreign
Policy Doctrine‖."<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Insight
Turkey</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>9.3 (2007): 25-36.</span><o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
<div id="edn14">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref14" name="_edn14" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif;">Habibi,
Nader, and Joshua W. Walker. "What is driving Turkeys Reengagement with
the Arab World."<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Crown
Center for Middle East Studies, Brandeis University</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>49 (2011).</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn15">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref15" name="_edn15" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span lang="EN-US">Idem.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn16">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/MDN_USER/Desktop/Temporary%20folder/Global%20Affairs%20Final%20Project/Double%20Narratives%20of%20Turkey%E2%80%99s%20Foreign%20Policy%20towards%20Middle%20East_%20The%20Quest%20of%20Balancing.docx#_ednref16" name="_edn16" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xvi]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> <span dir="RTL" lang="AR-SA" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif;">أ. سعيدي السعيد. "سياسة تركيا الخارجية في ظل حزب العدالة
والتنمية وانعكاساتها على العلاقات التركية-العربية." مجلة الفكر (2014):474.</span><span dir="LTR"></span><span lang="AR-SA" style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif;"><span dir="LTR"></span></span><span dir="RTL" lang="AR-DZ" style="font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-DZ; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>Mehdi Zouaouihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04701539088575669134noreply@blogger.com0